2. Gestão da Informação e do Conhecimento
Objectivos da sessão
• Delinear o tipo de trabalho que os trabalhadores do conhecimento
fazem
• Descrever as fases da gestão do conhecimento
• Rever os elementos chave da infra estrutura da gestão do
conhecimento e avaliar a sua eficácia no apoio/suporte a um
ambiente do conhecimento
• Discutir a eficácia dos métodos de transferência de conhecimento
organizacional
• Descrever os aspectos chave de comunidades de prática efectivas
• Aplicar os 5P’s da gestão do conhecimento a contextos de trabalho
diferentes
• Identificar os aspectos chave que devem ser considerados aquando
da integração da gestão estratégica de conhecimento nas práticas
de trabalho 2
3. Gestão da Informação e do Conhecimento
Programa da disciplina
Parte II
Influências no conhecimento
Introdução à gestão estratégica do conhecimento
Os trabalhadores do conhecimento
Fases do desenvolvimento do conhecimento
Infraestruturas da gestão do conhecimento
Comunidades de práticas
Os 5 P’s da gestão estratégica do conhecimento
3
4. O de
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12. Fases da criação do conhecimento organizacional
Fase Cria
Fontes do conhecimento Alicerces ricos e precisos para um
desenvolvimento contínuo de
conhecimento
Abstracção do Princípios, teorias e conceitos para
orientar um desenvolvimento
conhecimento
contínuo de conhecimento
Conversão do Conceitos abstractos que são
convertidos em aplicações e
conhecimento
resultados
Difusão do conhecimento Compreensão partilhada
Desenvolvimento e Conhecimento adaptável e flexível
acomodando contextos em
refinação do
mudança
conhecimento
12
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13. Fontes do conhecimento
13
A identificação de um hiato de conhecimento entre o
que se sabe e o que se precisa de saber é,
frequentemente, um estímulo para começar o processo
de criação de conhecimento.
Em resposta, a organização revê as fontes detidas
pelos indivíduos ou outros recursos organizacionais.
A este processo de aproximar o máximo de fontes
possível dá-se o nome de fontes do conhecimento.
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14. :
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16. 16
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17. 17
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18. 18
O co n
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p
Conh o ou emb ode ser
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parti íduos. P nto táci ebido é
histó lhado a ode ser to dos
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19. 19 Éad
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20. 20
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22. 22 Sistem
que as e
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orga o con ção e
nizac heci
3 tipos iona men a
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infra princi
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23. 23
Infra
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O ap tura de
o
conh io aos gest
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de
gest ificativa rganiz gestão s do
e nto
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asse acion o da spon
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24. 24 Infra e
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Os tr ura d
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práti és das s s do co os seus mo
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dese idades d s na reas dessesm
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25. 25 Infra e
strut
A ge
stã
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trata ão de gest
de
reten do rec recurs ão
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estím ção, derutame os hum
ulo d senv nto, anos
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atrav idades os co indi
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estra és das organ as iduais
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resp rganiz a todos
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parte gesto m gru ão e n ta
In fra
p
dese deste r desem o reduão
colabnvolvimpapel penha zido.
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26. 26 Infra e
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Inclue ura tecn
ológ
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m os
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m i
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as po as barre nto
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27. Infra e
27 strut
Perm ura s
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prof item
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mem ssionais rocas soc
de
e
outro bros da ntre os iais e
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s par orga
São m ceiro nizaçã
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s los
se ce com ão (por e pela
ntra que a orgxemplo,
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28. Prote
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29. 29
O co
negónhecim
que cio é a ento c
iden foi acum uele entral a
q
valortificado uladoconhec o
disse izado, , publi , tendo imento
mina captu came sido
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asse anizaç a org e
a
staff gurar q ão tem nização
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crític
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conh isam d funcio
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pode rtante to que qual o
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cont ltados f tribuir ue formmente
direcinuado inais – para os a
orga ção es reconh requer
nizaç traté ecim um
ão. gica e
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30. 30
Permi
de c itindo a
onhe
O con cimetransferê
nto ncia
do h
prec ecim
e nto
e efe isa de s ento crít
l
io na
a tod ctivameer regul ico
cçã o
nece os os qu nte diss armente
ssite e
m e dele minado
e cim
O au
n iz ac
conh mento d
form ecimen o valor
P rote
as in a como to mudo do
co nh
ocor teracçõ a comun u a
rem e
nas os estratéicação e
org a
3 mo
delo rgan gicas
de c s de izaçõ
dem onhecim transfe es
evoluonstram ento rênc
ia
orga tiva d a nat
nizac a com ureza
iona unica
l ção
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32. Desafi
32 orga ios que
as penização se colo
infor ssoas tr à medid cam à
maçã ocam a qu
do Objec o e se a e
e nto
l
dapt
io na
form tos do am:
cçã o
conh as explí conhec
capt ecimen ícitas de imento –
e cim
aceduradas, to que s
n iz ac
algu idas e a armazenão
P rote
que ns probl daptada as,
são u e s
sado mas à m . Surgem
co nh
Propr s: edid
org a
gost iedade a
cont am d in te
poss ribu e ser re lectual
a serto embo conheci – as pes
Unifo difíc ra a p das p soas
il de r el
r mi z
a çã o deteopriedado seu
r mi n
Pers
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que a ização
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o? Ex s d
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ita
ões? ou
33. 33 Grupo
inter os de pe
parti esses comssoas co
de
lham uns q m
i ca
conh
colab ecim o seu ue
ento
oram
ade s
e
prát Menta
estão lidade
seus ligad colect
inter os atrav ivista –
unid
proc
uram esses co és dos
Grupo colaboramuns e
gerid s não fo r
C om
devi os que e rmais, a
do a xiste uto
pess o
oal d compro m
os se miss
us m o
emb
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34. Os 5
P’s d
estra a ge 34
stão Anab
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conh a do
ecim
ento
36. 36
Um pl
cuid anea
ado mento
e nto
conh asse
ecim gura
defin ento que
ido e cent o
Estraté apoiado ral é
ea m
para gias cui
criar dada
proc siste s
esso
s efe mas e
Pla n
mon ctivo
itora
a lon r a su se
go p a ef i
uma razo cácia
b oa facil
GC itam
Anab
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37. 37
A GC
para confia
conh fornece nas pes
usareecimen rem o soas
oa s
m co to e o
També m eficá
Pe ss para m con cia
dos s o desen tribuem
istem volvi
A cria as men
to
com ção d
e
rede unidade uma
são es de con social e
impo lement hecime
com rtantes os nto
unid
ade de qualq
uer
Anab
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38. 38
Vários
s
proc s sistema
es so
esso se
s er e s pre
stab cisam
facil elec de
itare idos
para
Proc
trans ma
ferên
conh cia d
ecim e
mem ento
bros entre
orga e can os
nizaç ais d
ão a
Anab
e la M
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ita
39. 39
uto s
Uma d
obje efinição
ctos
Pro d
conh crític clara dos
ecim os de
resu e
ltado nto e
pres s per
erva m
ção e ite a su
aces a
so
Anab
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esqu
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40. 40
Os res
long sultados
o
ser c prazos de curto
mon onsidera precisam e
n ho
i
asse torados dos e de
gura para
com
unid r que a
m pe
conh ad e
d
efec ecimento e
t
sua e ivamente está
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Notas do Editor
Page 31 Our knowledge economy has forced organisations to consider more carefully how knowledge operates, and how it may be identified, preserved and accessed. The holders of strategic knowledge are critical assets who also need to be recognised and retained within the organisation. Many organisations manage their knowledge assets very poorly: they often have little understanding of what should be valued, who holds critical strategic knowledge and how existing knowledge can be maximised to achieve the greatest value for the organisation. Knowledge work is increasing in importance and frequency, thereby placing greater pressure on knowledge management strategies.
LO1 - Page 31 – 32. As a result, knowledge workers now abound in many organisations. These workers are expected to draw on their expertise and theoretical knowledge to make judgements and decisions. They consistently draw on their existing knowledge to work on problems or to resolve new situations. In addition, they build new knowledge as part of their work roles, learning from past experience to ensure improved performance in the future. Knowledge workers are generally focused on using their intellectual assets as their main work focus. This is in contrast to those who work with their hands and produce physical or tangible products. Thus, the knowledge worker should be valued for the intellectual contributions which are made to the organisation.
Page 31 – 32. Knowledge workers possess many different forms of knowledge. For example, they may be valued for any or all of the following forms of organisational knowledge: Know what – sources, systems and organisational processes which assist with undertaking knowledge work Know who – awareness of the different individuals, groups, and organisational units which can act as knowledge sources on important issues Know how – the capacity to perform complex mental tasks using a range of analytical and reflective techniques (such as analysis, researching, testing, innovation) Know why – the ability to explain and justify the decisions which are made Know where – the capacity to identify and find suitable sources of guidance on a problem Know when – the ability to judge the optimal time to undertake certain actions and tasks Know if – the anticipation of future possibilities to test the suitability of potential courses of action.
Page 31 – 32. Knowledge workers possess many different forms of knowledge. For example, they may be valued for any or all of the following forms of organisational knowledge: Know what – sources, systems and organisational processes which assist with undertaking knowledge work Know who – awareness of the different individuals, groups, and organisational units which can act as knowledge sources on important issues Know how – the capacity to perform complex mental tasks using a range of analytical and reflective techniques (such as analysis, researching, testing, innovation) Know why – the ability to explain and justify the decisions which are made Know where – the capacity to identify and find suitable sources of guidance on a problem Know when – the ability to judge the optimal time to undertake certain actions and tasks Know if – the anticipation of future possibilities to test the suitability of potential courses of action.
LO2 - Page 32. Organisational knowledge is a complex activity, as it evolves and builds on many influential sources. As each person interacts with various sources of knowledge, the individual’s insights are reshaped and altered. This dynamic nature of knowledge makes it a valuable commodity in any organisation, but it also places greater pressure on firms to manage and monitor the ways in which organisation is evolving. The collective activities of many employees contribute to the growth and refinement of the organisational knowledge. Over time, new ways of thinking and problem-solving have been introduced, so that the collective insights of many people can be used to enrich decision-making. Think-tanks, committees and working parties are examples of the ways organisations have moved toward building greater collective knowledge. Within organisations, people spend much time creating new organisational knowledge or refining knowledge previously created. Five phases of creation can be identified – as the next slide illustrates.
O processo de criação de conhecimento é dinâmico e responsivo (dá respostas) extraindo estímulos e feedback a partir de uma variedade de fontes durante os vários estádios. Este feedback pode influenciar a construção do conhecimento subsequente pois fornece estímulos / indicações e informação que é considerada e avaliada. Vamos ver cada fase em detalhe Figure 2.1 (page 33) in the text provides a simple depiction of the five stages of organisational knowledge creation. Each of these will be explored in the next slides. When reviewing each of these phases, students are encouraged to consider how the process is undertaken by an individual as well as a collective group. In organisations, knowledge can be developed by individuals who hold that knowledge and provide it on request to others. Alternatively, it may be developed collectively by a group through learning and ongoing experience. Thus, organisational knowledge can be a complex interchange of what individuals know, and what various individuals contribute to a broader knowledge development process. These two layers will be explored in the following slides.
(Page 32 – 33) Stage 1 of the knowledge development relates to the process of identifying the sources of knowledge which can be accessed. Ideally, a number of sources should be accessed to create a stronger basis for the knowledge. Unfortunately, there are many instances where knowledge is generated from a very small number, or convenient sources, rather than the optimal avenues which should be explored. (Page 32-33.) Knowledge is best developed by accessing a range of sources. Some of these might include: The specialised prior knowledge of individuals Expert guidance from those with specialised and detailed knowledge Organisational records, including the intranet and archives External sources, including the Internet, libraries and other forms of guidance Prior experience acts as an important source of knowledge. This is often underused in organisations, where mistakes are repeated because people do not share their learning and errors with others. Collective knowledge development increases the capacity to draw on the expertise and learning of others, so that all members of the group build higher levels of understanding.
(Page 33 – 34) The various sources of knowledge need to be drawn together and digested, so that a coherent view of the learning is developed. Knowledge abstraction describes the construction of the new principles, theories and concepts which assist with developing the new knowledge. These framing devices offer a mechanism for testing the ideas which are subsequently generated. Different processes are undertaken by those with different experience. An expert will draw heavily on his/her knowledge and prior experiences, with some additional refinement from other sources. Much of this analysis might be quite intuitive, reflecting the highly advanced mental schemas which operate. A novice, on the other hand, will rely more extensively on external sources of guidance to create a schema. This will gradually be refined as experience in the area is gained. It is critical to recognise that this stage of abstraction must have sufficient time to gestate and evolve. It explains why many working parties and committees can take considerable time to reach an outcome. The discussion may seem fruitless and circuitous, but it may actually be building some very important common principles and strategies.
(Page 34) Knowledge needs to be applied into new contexts and problems. Using the developed schema, it contributes to effective management of new problems and issues. Knowledge conversion will be enacted in different ways, depending on the type of outcome which is desired. For example, it may lead to the development of knowledge artefacts which can be stored and accessed by other members of the organisation. This is called codified knowledge, in that it can be accessed by others as needed. In contrast, embodied knowledge is kept by an individual, and cannot be readily replicated without interacting with that individual. A highly expert source who has specialist knowledge which draws on many years of experience, will be more likely to generate embodied knowledge. This can still be shared, but it will often be provided within a specific context, through stories, personal advice and other forms of interchange. Codified knowledge, on the other hand, may be quite versatile in nature.
(Page 34) Knowledge is best shared. The diffusion of knowledge provides maximum benefit for the organisation, as it ensures the expertise of many individuals can act as sources for others, and further refines the knowledge conversion process. Diffusion can be undertaken using a range of channels. For example, knowledge can be communicated using a range of media such as newsletters, the intranet, seminars, videos and other forms of communication. Experts might share their knowledge by coaching others. Demonstrations can also be helpful in modelling good practices for others to emulate. Where high level expertise is being disseminated, it is important to provide some scaffolding for learners. Those with limited background in an area may need stronger support to build an adequate mental structure of how this knowledge can be used and applied. Those with existing knowledge will find it easier to integrate new insights into their existing knowledge.
(Page 34) A challenge for organisations is that knowledge is very dynamic: each new experience reshapes both collective and individual knowledge recipients. This can challenge organisations, as they need to regularly monitor and update their knowledge sources and applications of knowledge to ensure they are working from strong principles. Thus, the challenge for organisations is to build a careful process of encouraging widespread interaction and sharing of knowledge, and to provide sufficient flexibility to enable the adaptation of processes following further learning and growth. This combination of flexibility and rigour is an important feature of effective knowledge management.
LO3 – Pages 35 – 41 Knowledge management is a complex activity which requires an integrated approach across a number of major systems and processes. Three major infrastructure zones relate to the managerial, technical and social aspects of the organisation. Each of these needs to reflect and support the principles of knowledge management to ensure its full adoption by members of the organisational community. Each of these will be explored in turn.
A criação de conhecimento organizacional confia em muitos sistemas e processos que constituem a infra estrutura organizacional. 3 tipos de estruturas existem na maior parte das organizações: gestão, técnica e social Pages 35 -36 Managerial infrastructure provides a supportive framework for resourcing, decision-making and innovative practices, so that knowledge activities can be successfully pursued. Management provides the resources and support to ensure those goals are achieved. Generally, managers are responsible for the effective resource utilisation of their staff, finances, resources and overall performance of the operational unit they head. In knowledge-intensive communities, the manager generally operates as both facilitator and partner with knowledge workers. Successful knowledge management requires an open management style which encourages sharing across the organisation. Silo mentalities, which promote withholding of knowledge can be major barriers to sharing knowledge.
A criação de conhecimento organizacional confia em muitos sistemas e processos que constituem a infra estrutura organizacional. 3 tipos de estruturas existem na maior parte das organizações: gestão, técnica e social
Page 36 Human resource management (HRM) facilitate the recruitment, retention, development and nurturing of staff within the organisation. HRM focuses on developing the optimal employee support systems and rewards to achieve maximum organisational benefit. Its key purpose is to align the people processes with the corporate priorities, so that each individual strives to achieve these goals. In a knowledge-intensive community, people need to be encouraged to learn and grow as part of their normal work expectations. HRM is the responsibility of many people across the organisation. It is not just a role that a central group undertakes. Every manager plays a role in encouraging good deployment of staff members.
Page 36 - 37 Various technical and information management systems including those related to financial, information, records, customer, human resources, project and library management offer strong support to the knowledge management process. They assist people to share and transfer information and knowledge. Effective organisational systems facilitate the ongoing recording, transmitting and sharing of information and knowledge. Some barriers are systems operating with different technical structures or restricted access to systems. The organisation needs to be conscious of how it encourages knowledge practices through its systems and their management. Important systems include the library and information services within the organisation, and the processes by which records are managed and maintained.
(Page 38 – 41) Social infrastructure is often taken for granted in many organisations. However, in knowledge intensive communities, the way in which social interaction is encouraged and supported strongly influences the effectiveness of the social and professional interchange across members of the community. The values in an organisation impact on the social infrastructure. For example, the degree to which the organisation encourages a collective or an individual focus , long-term or short-term emphases and a competitive or collaborative outlook will influence the social community. Knowledge management can assist with developing a social community, as it seeks to share and build trust across many different members of the organisation. It encourages the creation of social capital, that is the building of sustained and robusted relationships which encourage interchange and sharing. Implicit in this concept is the valuing of these processes by the organisation.
LO4, Page 41 – 2 The challenge for organisations is to manage their knowledge effectively, so that the important components are accessible and recognised when and as needed. The knowledge core is that knowledge which is identified, publicly valued, captured and disseminated by the organisation. It is the essential knowledge which is required to undertake the key business activities of the unit. An important organisational goal would be to ensure the right knowledge is generated and distributed. To facilitate this diffusion, it is important that each staff member is able to access and identify the knowledge that most assists with the organisational outcomes. In order to do this, employees need to know what is important and how they can contribute to the outcomes. This requires ongoing awareness of the strategic directions of the organisation.
Page 42 – 43. Organisations need to ensure their critical knowledge is regularly and effectively disseminated to all who need it to perform their roles. In many organisations, communication has been a barrier to knowledge sharing, as it has regulated the flow of information between parties. As the value of knowledge has increased, modes of interaction have also changed to enable more flexible knowledge transference. Mintzberg and Van der Heyden have explored the ways in which knowledge transference occurs. Their models of the knowledge chain, hub and web reflect the growing evolution of the communication of processes. These are explored individually over the next slides.
Pages 44 – 45. Knowledge transference opens up some challenging issues for organisations, as people exchange and adapt information. One type of knowledge source which is increasing in variety and sophistication is knowledge objects. These sources are explicit forms of knowledge which are captured and recorded in a form which can be retrieved and adapted by others. Some issues arise as these objects are used and re-used. Organisations need to consider how they will approach the ownership of the original ideas which generated the object. People like to be recognised for their contribution, although ownership becomes more difficult to determine when it is a work product used by many. Preservation of individual ownership may not be a beneficial or wise strategy in a knowledge intensive community. Organisations may also wish to consider how they approach the use of knowledge objects. Should a standardised approach be followed, so that all users develop objects with a similar feel, or should the capacity to customise and adapt be supported?
Page 45 – 46: LO6 Communities of practice are important elements of a knowledge intensive organisation. They are not formally constructed groupings, but rather, evolve over time. CoPs generally grow through a common need to share and collaborate. Members remain connected while they have a common purpose and interest. As they are not structurally organised, they facilitate interaction of many different parties – regardless of seniority or location. CoPs have a strong collectivist mentality: they bond through their common interest and generally seek to build good collaboration across their members. They seek to share as much as possible. A feature of CoPs is that they are self-managing: no one is in charge. Instead, members maintain the group’s cohesion through their personal interest and commitment. KM Viewpoint 2.3 provides an interesting example of an Australian CoP which transcends organisational boundaries.
LO7 – pages 48 – 50 Knowledge management needs to be regarded as a fundamental activity of the organisation. It facilitates effective use of the expertise which is to be found in that community, and encourages a stronger focus on the real issues and focus of the organisation. However, the evolving nature of the knowledge community means that knowledge workers must continue to build new skills and capabilities. This capacity building relates to the ongoing development of new competencies and skills to meet future challenges. Capacity building encourages employees to anticipate future needs and to prepare for them. A core competency which needs to be cultivated is knowledge sharing. Organisations need to actively encourage this practice, and to assist employees with the necessary skill and know-how to apply this competency. Similarly, the knowledge community needs strong leadership and guidance to ensure members feel connected and valued. This also requires strong leadership. A final principle is that knowledge management should add value to the community. People should feel that the effort spent on knowledge management is worthwhile; that it generates major advantage to the organisation. In particular, it needs to be sympathetic to the nature of the individual organisation.
In conclusion, the following points need to be re-emphasised: Knowledge management is complex: it impacts on all aspects of the organisations systems and practices – from communication through to the human resource management systems. It needs to be reflected across all the layers of activity which occur. Optimal use of organisational knowledge can only be achieved if it is carefully managed. This includes the identification, development, retention and sharing of knowledge which is strategically critical. The infrastructure of the organisation needs to be recognised as playing a significant role in creating an effective knowledge environment. As systems, activities and outcomes align, there is increasing encouragement to see knowledge management as every individual’s business.
Students may wish to reflect further on these questions. Knowledge work What type of work do they anticipate doing when they finish their course? How does this reflect the knowledge work described in KM Viewpoint 2.1. They might find it interesting to consider how well their course is preparing them for this role… Knowledge development Students might like to think about how they develop their own knowledge. Do the five phases reflect their processes? How much time do they spend on reflection and exploration of concepts before applying that learning? Knowledge optimisation There have been many issues raised in this chapter. Students may like to think about which strategies they regard as most critical if knowledge management is to be firmly established and cultivated in an organisation. They might like to consider how infrastructure contributes, or whether values are most critical. How much support should there be for communities of practice? What role does communication play?