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- 1. Engenharia de Software Modelo Cascata Antonio Carlos Almir Ramos Eryson Raphael Rafael G. Leitão
Notas do Editor
- Primeira Revolução Industrial the mechanization of manufacturing changed an agrarian into an urban industrial society The cotton textile industry was the first to be fully mechanized. The crucial inventions were John KAY's flying shuttle (invented in 1733 but not widely used until the 1760s), James HARGREAVES's spinning jenny (1765), Richard ARKWRIGHT's water frame (1769), Samuel CROMPTON's mule (1779), and Edmund CARTWRIGHT's machine LOOM (1785, but delayed in its general use). n 1709 the ironmaster Abraham DARBY I succeeded in producing sound cast iron in a blast furnace charged with iron ore and coal (and soon afterward with coke, derived from coal). In 1712 another Englishman engaged in the iron trade, Thomas NEWCOMEN, invented the STEAM ENGINE The first factories were driven by water, but James WATT's improved Newcomen STEAM ENGINE (1769; especially his "sun and planet" adaptation converting linear into circular motion) made steam-driven machinery and modern factories possible from the 1780s. This use of steam power led, in turn, to increased demand for coal and iron. Each development spawned new technological breakthroughs, as, for example, Sir Henry BESSEMER's process for making steel (1856). Other industries such as chemicals and mining and the engineering professions also developed rapidly Segunda Revolução Industrial From 1830 on, the development of steam-driven LOCOMOTIVES brought the advent of RAILROADS, extending the transportation network In the 20th century the United States also dominated the new automobile industry, which Henry Ford (see FORD family) revolutionized by introducing a system of coordinated ASSEMBLY-LINE operations. Ford's success led to the widespread adoption of MASS PRODUCTION techniques in industry If the engineer was instrumental in making the Industrial Revolution, it can equally be said that the Industrial Revolution gave rise to the ENGINEERING profession as it is recognized today. Where previously engineers had risen through the ranks of craftsmen, in the 18th century it was becoming apparent that the act of design could be codified in the form of technical training, and the military services began to seek such training for their officer corps. In the 1740s the British government established a military academy at Woolwich at which cadets were instructed in the application of elementary mathematics and statics to gunnery and the design of fortifications. Later in the century John SMEATON coined the term "civil engineer" to distinguish civilian engineers from the increasing number of military engineers being graduated from Woolwich. A short-lived fraternity that called itself the Society of Civil Engineers (the "Smeatonians") formed around Smeaton; the first true professional organization in the field of engineering, however, was the Institution of Civil Engineers, founded in London in 1818 Experiments with the INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE began early in the century but without success until Jean Joseph Etienne LENOIR built an operational if inefficient two-cycle engine (1860) and the first AUTOMOBILE with this type of engine in 1862. The critical breakthrough in designing an efficient internal-combustion engine came in 1876, when Nikolaus August OTTO marketed the "Silent Otto" gas engine, having four cycles: intake, compression, stroke, and exhaust. In the 1880s the engine was adopted by Karl BENZ and Gottlieb DAIMLER to power motor vehicles. Rudolf DIESEL's engine, in which combustion is produced by high pressure in the cylinder, was exhibited in 1897. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, which began in Great Britain in the 18th century, spread to the rest of western Europe and North America during the 19th century. The pattern of diffusion was quite uniform, beginning with textiles, coal, and iron. In textiles such improvements as the Jacquard LOOM (France, 1801) were developed, which allowed fabrics with woven patterns to be produced cheaply. The SEWING MACHINE was invented (1846) in the United States by Elias HOWE and mass-marketed (1851) by Isaac Merrit SINGER. Iron was the basic metal of industry until after the discovery by Henry BESSEMER (British patent, 1856) and William Kelly (U.S. patent, 1847) of a process for making large amounts of steel cheaply (see IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY). The superior Siemens-Martin open-hearth process for making high-quality steel was first demonstrated in France in 1863
- Primeira Revolução Industrial the mechanization of manufacturing changed an agrarian into an urban industrial society The cotton textile industry was the first to be fully mechanized. The crucial inventions were John KAY's flying shuttle (invented in 1733 but not widely used until the 1760s), James HARGREAVES's spinning jenny (1765), Richard ARKWRIGHT's water frame (1769), Samuel CROMPTON's mule (1779), and Edmund CARTWRIGHT's machine LOOM (1785, but delayed in its general use). n 1709 the ironmaster Abraham DARBY I succeeded in producing sound cast iron in a blast furnace charged with iron ore and coal (and soon afterward with coke, derived from coal). In 1712 another Englishman engaged in the iron trade, Thomas NEWCOMEN, invented the STEAM ENGINE The first factories were driven by water, but James WATT's improved Newcomen STEAM ENGINE (1769; especially his "sun and planet" adaptation converting linear into circular motion) made steam-driven machinery and modern factories possible from the 1780s. This use of steam power led, in turn, to increased demand for coal and iron. Each development spawned new technological breakthroughs, as, for example, Sir Henry BESSEMER's process for making steel (1856). Other industries such as chemicals and mining and the engineering professions also developed rapidly Segunda Revolução Industrial From 1830 on, the development of steam-driven LOCOMOTIVES brought the advent of RAILROADS, extending the transportation network In the 20th century the United States also dominated the new automobile industry, which Henry Ford (see FORD family) revolutionized by introducing a system of coordinated ASSEMBLY-LINE operations. Ford's success led to the widespread adoption of MASS PRODUCTION techniques in industry If the engineer was instrumental in making the Industrial Revolution, it can equally be said that the Industrial Revolution gave rise to the ENGINEERING profession as it is recognized today. Where previously engineers had risen through the ranks of craftsmen, in the 18th century it was becoming apparent that the act of design could be codified in the form of technical training, and the military services began to seek such training for their officer corps. In the 1740s the British government established a military academy at Woolwich at which cadets were instructed in the application of elementary mathematics and statics to gunnery and the design of fortifications. Later in the century John SMEATON coined the term "civil engineer" to distinguish civilian engineers from the increasing number of military engineers being graduated from Woolwich. A short-lived fraternity that called itself the Society of Civil Engineers (the "Smeatonians") formed around Smeaton; the first true professional organization in the field of engineering, however, was the Institution of Civil Engineers, founded in London in 1818 Experiments with the INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE began early in the century but without success until Jean Joseph Etienne LENOIR built an operational if inefficient two-cycle engine (1860) and the first AUTOMOBILE with this type of engine in 1862. The critical breakthrough in designing an efficient internal-combustion engine came in 1876, when Nikolaus August OTTO marketed the "Silent Otto" gas engine, having four cycles: intake, compression, stroke, and exhaust. In the 1880s the engine was adopted by Karl BENZ and Gottlieb DAIMLER to power motor vehicles. Rudolf DIESEL's engine, in which combustion is produced by high pressure in the cylinder, was exhibited in 1897. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, which began in Great Britain in the 18th century, spread to the rest of western Europe and North America during the 19th century. The pattern of diffusion was quite uniform, beginning with textiles, coal, and iron. In textiles such improvements as the Jacquard LOOM (France, 1801) were developed, which allowed fabrics with woven patterns to be produced cheaply. The SEWING MACHINE was invented (1846) in the United States by Elias HOWE and mass-marketed (1851) by Isaac Merrit SINGER. Iron was the basic metal of industry until after the discovery by Henry BESSEMER (British patent, 1856) and William Kelly (U.S. patent, 1847) of a process for making large amounts of steel cheaply (see IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY). The superior Siemens-Martin open-hearth process for making high-quality steel was first demonstrated in France in 1863