FOUNDATIONS

1. Foundations of Qualitative Research 2
Part 1: Key characteristics of qualitative
research
Presentation by Victoria Clarke
Associate Professor of Qualitative and Critical
Psychology, UWE
August 2021

2. PowerPoint slides from the Braun, Clarke & Hayfield
Qualitative Methods Online Teaching & Learning
Resources Collaboration (QMOTLRC)

3. Topic overview
o This is the second of two lectures – each divided into three parts -
exploring the values, characteristics, and theoretical and
philosophical foundations of qualitative research.
o The aim of this second lecture is to provide further grounding in
the foundations of qualitative research - introducing some of the
concepts and terminology that define qualitative research.
o This lecture explores some of defining characteristics of
qualitative research and how qualitative research differs from
quantitative research.
o This lecture also builds on the discussion of different orientations
to qualitative research in the first lecture by considering
experiential and critical qualitative ‘camps’.
o Finally this lecture explores the key concepts of subjectivity and
reflexivity and the ontological and epistemological foundations of
qualitative research.
o There are some opportunities to pause the recording and reflect
on your knowledge and understanding of qualitative research.

4. Lecture overview
o Part 1: Key characteristics of qualitative research
o Part 2: Experiential and critical qualitive research
o Part 3: Key (theoretical and philosophical) concepts in
qualitative research

5. The growth in qualitative
research (in psychology)
“the growth in qualitative research in recent
years... has been phenomenal. Although the
volume of qualitative research in psychology
relative to quantitative methods remains
modest, and despite the exclusion of
qualitative research from many of the most
prestigious outlets, qualitative articles are
being published increasingly in mainstream
psychology journals. As well, there has been
an explosion in dedicated textbooks, journals,
conferences, and workshops attempting to
address the demand for qualitative research
from students, researchers, practitioners, and
policy makers.” (Madill & Gough, 2008: 254)

6. The emergence of a qualitative research
paradigm – the example of psychology
• Qualitative ideas and approaches have been part of psychology
from its inception.
• However, quantitative methods employed within a (post)positivist,
experimental paradigm have dominated the discipline.
• The more subjective, interpretative introspective (qualitative)
techniques of early psychology became classified as ‘unscientific’.
• It wasn’t until the 1980s that qualitative approaches regained a
foothold, and subsequently flourished, in some areas of
psychology.
• Their (re)appearance reflected the development of a number of
oppositional approaches within the social sciences, which
challenged mainstream (post)positivist empiricist research design
and practice.
• It’s important to understand that qualitative research is not simply
a complementary approach to quantitative research.

7. Pause for reflection 1
• If you have listened to Foundations of Qualitative Research
1, pause the recording and make a note of your
understanding of the definitions of –
• Small q qualitative.
• Big Q qualitative.

8. Big Q and small Q qualitative
research
• The most basic definition of qualitative research is that
it uses words as data, collected and analysed in all sorts
of ways.
• As we explored in Foundations of Qualitative Research
1, the term qualitative research is used to refer both to
techniques (of data collection or data analysis) and to a
wider framework of values for conducting research, or
a paradigm.
• Big Q qualitative research is not just about data and
techniques but the application of qualitative
techniques within a qualitative paradigm (Kidder &
Fine, 1987).
• Small q qualitative research is the use of specific
qualitative data collection and techniques, with a
quantitative or (post)positivist framework.

9. Qualitative research as a paradigm -
characteristics
• An assumption that there is no one correct version of
reality; there are multiple versions of reality (even for one
person) and these are closely linked to the context they
occur in.
• The use of qualitative data, and the analysis of words which
are not reducible to numbers.
• The use of more ‘naturally’ occurring data collection
methods, that more closely resemble real life – this
develops from the idea that we cannot make sense of data
in isolation from context.
• An interest in meanings rather than reports and measures
of behaviour or internal cognitions.

10. Qualitative research as a paradigm
continued
• The use of inductive, theory-generating research.
• A rejection of the natural sciences as a model of research,
including the rejection of the idea of the objective
(unbiased) scientist.
• The recognition that researchers bring their subjectivity into
the research process; this is seen as a strength rather than a
weakness.
See Silverman (2000)

11. What is qualitative research all about?
• “We should avoid seeing qualitative research as a homogeneous
category” (Henwood & Pidgeon, 1994: 226).
• Exploring meaning, rather than (abstract) universal laws of cause
and effect.
• The complexities of meaning in context (multiple interpretations
and meanings); ‘rich’ or ‘thick’ descriptions and interpretations of
meaning and experience.
• Interdependence of individual and social/cultural systems of
meaning.
• Language allows access to the richness of meaning and
experience for people and allows a far deeper understanding of a
phenomenon than using numbers (e.g. ‘giving voice’).
• Some qualitative approaches have an interest in language
practice – the way various objects are represented and the ways
language as a social practice is used to create particular versions
of reality.

12. Pause for reflection 2
• If you have listened to Foundations of Qualitative Research
1, pause the recording and make a note of your
understanding of the definitions of –
• A reflective view of language.
• An active, performative view of language.

13. Theories of language
• Influential British cultural theorist
Stuart Hall’s (1997) demarcated three
different theories of representation –
we have translated this to capture
different conceptualisations of
language:
• Reflective: language reflects true
nature of something – it’s like a mirror,
it reflects back to us the truth of
things. Reflective conceptualisations of
language are realist; a material reality
Independent of language - mind-
independent truth - is assumed to
exist, and be revealed through
language.

14. Intentional and constructionist theories
of language
• Intentional: language is used to convey the speaker’s unique
perspective on things, their reality. We see things uniquely;
we use language to convey our truths. Intentional
conceptualisations of language move away from universal
meanings and locate meaning within the person (the mind-
dependent truth).
• Constructionist conceptualisations treats language as social
and meaning as more malleable and flexible. Meaning is
created or constructed in and through language, and in and
through language use, the ways we talk and write about
things. Language here is understood as symbolic, and
powerful, rather than neutral; as active, rather than passive.

15. Why do qualitative research?
• Some researchers choose qualitative research because it fits with
their ontological and epistemological commitments – more on
‘O&E’ stuff or the ‘ologies in Part 3.
• Some researchers choose qualitative research because of political
commitments (in particular a commitment to social justice):
• ‘Giving voice’ to socially marginalised groups.
• Deconstructing socially dominant sense-making.
• Some researchers choose qualitative research because they have
questions about subjective sense-making and experiences or are
exploring an under/unresearched area:
• Qualitative research is generally more participant led – more
potential for unanticipated insights, for understanding
participants’ world-views and language, for ‘reaching the
parts quantitative methods cannot reach’ .

16. Comparing quantitative and qualitative research
(Tolich & Davidson, 2003)
Quantitative
• Numbers as data.
• Seeks relationships
between variables, to
explain or predict, with
the aim of generalising
the findings.
• Generates ‘shallow’ but
broad data.
• Seeks consensus, norms
or general patterns.
• Tends to be theory-
testing and deductive.
Qualitative
• Words as data.
• Seeks to understand and interpret;
recognises data as gathered in a
context.
• Generates ‘narrow’ but rich data
(depth about a specific issue – ‘thick
descriptions’).
• Seeks patterns, but accommodates and
explores difference and divergence;
good for working with ‘contradictory’
data.
• Tends to be theory generating and
inductive (working up from the data).

17. Comparing quantitative and
qualitative continued
Quantitative
• Values detachment and
impartiality (objectivity).
• Has a fixed design and
method (harder to change
focus once data collection
has begun).
• Can be completed quickly.
• Large numbers of
participants needed (for
statistical power).
Qualitative
• Values personal
involvements and partiality
(subjectivity).
• Design and method are less
fixed (can accommodate a
shift in focus).
• Tends to take longer to
complete.
• Smaller numbers of
participants expected.

18. References for part 1
• Hall, S. (1997). Representation: Cultural representations and
signifying practices. Sage.
• Henwood, K., & Pidgeon, N. (1994). Beyond the qualitative
paradigm: Introducing diversity within qualitative psychology.
Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 4, 225-238.
• Kidder, L. H., & Fine, M. (1987). Qualitative and quantitative
methods: when stories converge. In M. M. Mark & L. Shotland
(Eds.), New directions in program evaluation (pp. 57-75). Jossey-
Bass.
• Madill, A., & Gough, B. (2008). Qualitative research and its place
in psychological science. Psychological Methods, 13(3), 254-271.
• Tolich, M., & Davidson, C. (2003). Collecting the data. In C.
Davidson & M. Tolich (Eds.), Social science research in New
Zealand, 2nd ed. (pp. 121-153). Pearson Education.