Muscle complete lecture

1. Blood
Anatomy & Physiology
Ikramullah
Wiqrullah

2. Objectives
At the end of this session, the students will be able to:
1. Define blood and list its functions
2. Describe the composition, sites of production and
functions of cellular parts of blood and plasma
3. Briefly explain the ABO blood groups & Rh factor.

3. Blood
 Blood is a connective tissue composed of plasma (a
liquid extracellular matrix) and various cells and cell
fragments.
 The only fluid tissue in the human body
 Blood consists of:
 45% Blood cells
 55% plasma (90% water)

4. Functions of Blood
1. Carrier of gases, nutrients, and waste
products. Oxygen enters blood in the lungs and is
transported to cells. Carbon dioxide, produced by
cells, is transported in the blood to the lungs, from
which it is expelled. Ingested nutrients, ions, and
water are carried by the blood from the digestive tract
to cells, and the waste products of the cells are moved
to the kidneys for elimination.
2. Clot formation. Clotting proteins help stem blood
loss when a blood vessel is injured.
3. Transport of processed molecules. Most
substances are produced in one part of the body and
transported in the blood to another part.

5. Functions of Blood
4. Protection against foreign
substances. Antibodies help protect the body from
pathogens.
5. Transport of regulatory molecules. Various
hormones and enzymes that regulate body
processes are carried from one part of the body to
another within the blood.
6. Maintenance of body temperature. Warm blood
is transported from the inside to the surface of the
body, where heat is released from the blood.
7. pH and osmosis regulation. Albumin is also an
important blood buffer and contributes to the osmotic
pressure of blood, which acts to keep water in the
blood stream.

6. Characteristics of Blood
 Color range
 Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
 Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
 pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
 Blood temperature is slightly higher than body
temperature (38C or 100.4F)
 5-6 Liters (1.2gallon)
 20% of extracellular fluid and 8% mass of total
body.

8. Blood Plasma
 When the formed elements removed from the
blood, a straw color liquid called plasma.
 55% of blood is plasma
 Composed of about 90 % water
 Includes many dissolved substances as:
 Nutrients, electrolytes
 Respiratory gases
 Proteins (albumin 54%, globulin 38%, fibrinogen
7%)
 Regulatory substances (hormones, enzymes,
vitamins)
 Waste products

9. Plasma Proteins
 Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure by binding
with water.
 Clotting proteins (Fibrinogen) – prevent blood
loss when a blood vessel is injured.
 These plasma protein called antibodies or
immunoglobulin because they are produce
during certain immune response.
 The antibodies specifically bind with the foreign
substance called Antigen (can be virus, bacteria,
other foreign particles).

10. Blood
Plasma
Formed Element
Erythrocytes or Red
blood cells
Leukocytes or White
blood cells
Thrombocytes or
Platelets (cell
fragments)

11. Blood Cells and Fragments
 The percentage of total hemoglobin volume in the
blood is called hematocrit. For example hematocrit
40 means that 40% part of the blood contain
RBCs.
 In Female 38-46% in Male 40-54%.
 Testosterone stimulate erythropoietin hormone
which increase the production of RBCs in male
than in female.
 Polycythemia: abnormal production of RBCs more
than 65%.

12. Formation of Blood Cells (Hemopoiesis)
• The process of blood formation is hemopoiesis
• In fetus, hemopoiesis occurs in the in the liver, spleen,
thymus, and lymph nodes.
• Red bone marrow becomes the primary site of
hemopoiesis in the last three months before birth, and
continues for the rest of life.
• Red bone marrow cells are derived from pluripotent
stem cells, that have a capacity to produced several
types of cells.
• The stem cell in red bone marrow reproduce
themselves proliferate and differentiate into cells that
give rise into blood cells.

13. Blood formation cont…
• Stem cells in the red bone marrow give rise to
myeloid and lymphoid stem cells.
• Myeloid stem cells give rise to RBCs, platelets,
monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophil's, and
basophils.
• Lymphoid stem cells give rise to lymphocytes.

15. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
 Normal level: 5.4 in male and 4.8 million/mm3 in
female.
 The main function is to carry oxygen
 Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
 Biconcave discs
 Essentially bags of hemoglobin
 Anucleate (no nucleus)

16. • Certain glycolipids in the plasma membrane of
RBCs are antigens that accounts for various blood
groups.
• The cytosol contains hemoglobin molecules
• RBC life span is about 120 days.

17. Hemoglobin
 Iron-containing protein
 Transport O2, CO2 and even NO (vasodilator)
 Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen
binding sites
 Each erythrocyte has about 280 million
hemoglobin molecules.
 Each RBC contain 280 million hemoglobin
molecules. Hemoglobin molecule contain protein
is called globin which compose of polypeptide
chain.
 The non-protein part is called heme.

18. Life cycle of RBC
• Life cycle of RBC is 120 days, without the nucleus and
other organelles RBC cannot synthesis new components
to replace the damage once, with the time plasma
membrane is more fragile and they rupture. The rupture
RBC removed from the circulation and destroyed by fixed
phagocytic macrophages in the spleen and liver and the
breakdown product are recycle.
• Macrophages in the spleen, liver and red bone marrow
phagocyte rupture and worn-out red blood cell.

19. • The globin and heme portions of hemoglobin are
split apart.
• The globin part broken down into amino acid and
reused to synthesis protein.
• The non-iron portion of heme (nonprotein pigment)
is converted to biliverdin, a green pigment, and then
into bilirubin, a yellow-orange pigment.
• Bilirubin is transported to the liver which is then
passed to the large intestine.
• In the large intestine, bacteria convert bilirubin into
urobilinogen.
• Urobilinogen is excreted in the form of a brown
pigment stercobilin, which gives feces its color.

20. Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
 Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
 These are complete cells, with a nucleus and
organelles
 Able to move into and out of blood vessels
 Can respond to chemicals released by damaged
tissues

21. Leukocyte Levels in the Blood
 Normal levels =4,000 to 11,000 cells/ml
 Abnormal leukocyte levels
Leukocytosis
Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml
Generally indicates an infection
Leukopenia
Abnormally low leukocyte level
Commonly caused by certain drugs

22. Types of Leukocytes
Granulocytes
1. Neutrophils
2. Eosinophil
3. basophils
Figure 10.4

23. Types of Leukocytes
A granulocytes
1. Lymphocytes
2. Monocytes
Figure 10.4

24. Granulocytes
Neutrophils (60—70%)
Multi lobed nucleus with fine granules
Act as phagocytes
These help fight bacterial and fungal
infections.

25. Granulocytes
 Eosinophil (2—4%)
 Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules.
 Respond to allergies and parasitic worms
 Basophils (0.5—1%)
 The stain blue-purple with basic dye
 Have histamine-containing granules
 Release heparin, histamine, serotonin
 Initiate inflammation

26. Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes (20—25%)
 Nucleus fills most of the cell
 Play an important role in the immune response
 Including T cells and B cells, which help fight some
viruses and tumors.
Monocytes (3—8%)
 Largest of the white blood cells
 Function as macrophages
 These engulf and digest debris, including bacteria.

27. Platelets (Thrombocytes)
 The myeloid stem cells developed into
megakaryocyte colony forming cells that turn
developed into precursor cells called
megakaryoblast. The megakaryoblast transform
into megakaryocyte huge cells that splinter into
2000 to 3000fragments. Each fragment enclose a
piece of plasma membrane is called platelet.
 Size is 2-4 Micrometer and have no neuclus.
 Needed for the clotting process
 Normal platelet count = 150,000—400,000/mm3
 Life span upto 10 days

28. Hemostasis
 Stoppage of blood flow
 Hemostasis involves three phases
 Vascular spasms
Hemorrhage (Bleeding)
 Platelet plug formation
Adhesion
Aggregation
 Coagulation

29. Undesirable Clotting
 Thrombus
 A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
 Can be deadly in areas like the heart
 Embolus
 A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely in
the bloodstream
 Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as the
brain
 Streptokinase (SK)

30. ABO Blood Groups
• As we have seen, blood is vital for transporting
substances through the body; when blood is lost,
the blood vessels constrict and the bone marrow
steps up blood cell formation in an attempt to
keep the circulation going.
• Human Blood Groups
• Although whole blood transfusions can save lives,
people have different blood groups, and
transfusing incompatible or mismatched blood
can be fatal.

32. ABO Blood Groups
• Antigen. An antigen is a substance that the body recognizes as
foreign; it stimulates the immune system to release antibodies or
use other means to mount a defense against it.
• Antibodies. One person’s RBC proteins will be recognized as foreign
if transfused into another person with different RBC antigens; the
“recognizers” are antibodies present in the plasma that attach to
RBCs bearing surface antigens different from those on the patient’s
(blood recipient’s) RBCs.
• Agglutination. Binding of the antibodies causes the foreign RBCs to
clump, a phenomenon called agglutination, which leads to the
clogging of small blood vessels throughout the body.

33. • ABO blood groups. The ABO blood groups are based on
which of two antigens, type A or type B, a person inherits;
absence of both antigens results in type O blood, presence
of both antigens leads to type AB, and the presence of
either A or B antigen yields type A or B blood.
• Rh blood groups. The Rh blood groups are so named
because one of the eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D) was
originally identified in Rhesus monkeys; later the same
antigen was discovered in human beings; most Americans
are Rh+ (Rh positive), meaning that their RBCs carry the Rh
antigen.
• Anti-Rh antibodies. Unlike the antibodies of the ABO
system, anti-Rh antibodies are not automatically formed and
present in the blood of Rh- (Rh-negative) individuals.
• Hemolysis. Hemolysis (rupture of RBCs) does not occur
with the first transfusion because it takes time for
the body to react and start making antibodies.

34. Blood Typing
• The importance of determining the blood group of
both the donor and the recipient before blood is
transfused is glaringly obvious.
• Blood typing of ABO blood groups. When serum
containing anti-A or anti-B antibodies is added to a
blood sample diluted with saline, agglutination will
occur between the antibody and the corresponding
antigen.
• Cross matching. Cross matching involves testing
for agglutination of donor RBCs by the recipient’s
serum and of the recipient’s RBCs by the donor
serum;
• Blood typing for Rh factors. Typing for the Rh

35. Blood Types Determine Blood Compatibility

36. References: Gerard J, Tortora/Bryan Derrickson 16 Edition