Forage production involves the cultivation and management of crops specifically grown to be used as fodder for livestock. These crops, known as forages, typically include grasses, legumes, and other plants rich in nutrients. Forage production aims to provide a sustainable and nutritious source of feed for grazing animals or forage that can be harvested and stored for later use.
Fodder crops are crops cultivated primarily for animal feed. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is considered the "Queen of fodder crops". It is a perennial legume with trifoliate leaves and purple flowers. Alfalfa is high in proteins, vitamins, and minerals and is the world's highest protein feed. It is predominantly grown in the United States, Argentina, and Canada. While alfalfa provides excellent nutrition, factors like saponins and phytoestrogens can potentially cause issues if not properly managed.
This document discusses different ways of classifying agricultural crops. It begins by distinguishing between crops, which are useful plants grown by humans, and weeds, which are unintended plants. Crops are then classified as either agronomic or horticultural. Agronomic crops are grown on a large scale while horticultural crops are grown intensively. The document further discusses botanical classification of crops based on morphological characteristics and descriptive classification based on factors like life span, growth habit, and environmental adaptation. It provides examples to illustrate different classifications.
ClassiFication of AFricultural C0gps - fin (2).pptJenniferCelades
The document discusses different ways of classifying agricultural crops. It describes botanical classification which is based on morphological characteristics, anatomy, and DNA sequences. Descriptive classification considers environmental adaptation, growth habit, and other observable features. Agricultural classification divides crops into those that are useful versus weeds. Crops are also classified as agronomic field crops versus horticultural garden crops based on scale of cultivation and intensity of management. Crops can be grouped according to their primary uses such as food, fiber, industrial products. The classifications help with plant collection, research, communication, and farm management.
Horticultural crops are plants cultivated for human use rather than being native wildlife or feral vegetation. They are called horticultural crops because they provide benefits to families through income generation, bonding experiences during cultivation, and sources of joy. Plants can be classified in various ways including botanically by physical characteristics, descriptively by environmental adaptations and features, and agriculturally as either crops or weeds. Descriptive classification further breaks down plants based on mode of reproduction, pollination method, lifespan, stem structure, leaf retention, habitat, and other observable traits.
The document provides information on plant classification systems. It discusses the botanical or taxonomic system of classification, which organizes plants in a hierarchical structure from kingdom down to species based on morphological characteristics. The key levels are kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus, and species. Scientific names follow binomial nomenclature with the genus and species. Classification helps in the identification, discovery, and use of plants. The document also discusses functional classification systems that group plants according to their uses, such as agronomic crops (cereals, legumes, fibers, roots/tubers, forages, industrial crops) and horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops).
Classifying Plants Based On Climate And HabitatGeonyzl Alviola
The document classifies plants into different categories based on their life span, growth habit, climatic adaptation, water requirement, and use. It identifies three types of plant life spans - annual, biennial, and perennial. It also describes the woody and herbaceous growth habits, as well as tropical, temperate, and arctic climatic adaptations. Plants are further classified based on their water requirements and their uses, which include cereal crops, forage crops, root crops, and cover crops.
This document discusses mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), an evergreen leguminous tree found in arid and semi-arid regions. It grows up to 10-15 meters high and its protein-rich pods are used as fodder, especially during dry periods. The tree fixes nitrogen, provides shade and shelter, and is used for windbreaks. It is well-adapted to harsh conditions like saline soil and drought. The pods are an important source of forage for livestock. Higher inclusion rates of pods in animal feed can cause toxicity issues. The foliage is generally unpalatable but may be eaten during drought.
Fodder crops are crops cultivated primarily for animal feed. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) is considered the "Queen of fodder crops". It is a perennial legume with trifoliate leaves and purple flowers. Alfalfa is high in proteins, vitamins, and minerals and is the world's highest protein feed. It is predominantly grown in the United States, Argentina, and Canada. While alfalfa provides excellent nutrition, factors like saponins and phytoestrogens can potentially cause issues if not properly managed.
This document discusses different ways of classifying agricultural crops. It begins by distinguishing between crops, which are useful plants grown by humans, and weeds, which are unintended plants. Crops are then classified as either agronomic or horticultural. Agronomic crops are grown on a large scale while horticultural crops are grown intensively. The document further discusses botanical classification of crops based on morphological characteristics and descriptive classification based on factors like life span, growth habit, and environmental adaptation. It provides examples to illustrate different classifications.
ClassiFication of AFricultural C0gps - fin (2).pptJenniferCelades
The document discusses different ways of classifying agricultural crops. It describes botanical classification which is based on morphological characteristics, anatomy, and DNA sequences. Descriptive classification considers environmental adaptation, growth habit, and other observable features. Agricultural classification divides crops into those that are useful versus weeds. Crops are also classified as agronomic field crops versus horticultural garden crops based on scale of cultivation and intensity of management. Crops can be grouped according to their primary uses such as food, fiber, industrial products. The classifications help with plant collection, research, communication, and farm management.
Horticultural crops are plants cultivated for human use rather than being native wildlife or feral vegetation. They are called horticultural crops because they provide benefits to families through income generation, bonding experiences during cultivation, and sources of joy. Plants can be classified in various ways including botanically by physical characteristics, descriptively by environmental adaptations and features, and agriculturally as either crops or weeds. Descriptive classification further breaks down plants based on mode of reproduction, pollination method, lifespan, stem structure, leaf retention, habitat, and other observable traits.
The document provides information on plant classification systems. It discusses the botanical or taxonomic system of classification, which organizes plants in a hierarchical structure from kingdom down to species based on morphological characteristics. The key levels are kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus, and species. Scientific names follow binomial nomenclature with the genus and species. Classification helps in the identification, discovery, and use of plants. The document also discusses functional classification systems that group plants according to their uses, such as agronomic crops (cereals, legumes, fibers, roots/tubers, forages, industrial crops) and horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops).
Classifying Plants Based On Climate And HabitatGeonyzl Alviola
The document classifies plants into different categories based on their life span, growth habit, climatic adaptation, water requirement, and use. It identifies three types of plant life spans - annual, biennial, and perennial. It also describes the woody and herbaceous growth habits, as well as tropical, temperate, and arctic climatic adaptations. Plants are further classified based on their water requirements and their uses, which include cereal crops, forage crops, root crops, and cover crops.
This document discusses mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), an evergreen leguminous tree found in arid and semi-arid regions. It grows up to 10-15 meters high and its protein-rich pods are used as fodder, especially during dry periods. The tree fixes nitrogen, provides shade and shelter, and is used for windbreaks. It is well-adapted to harsh conditions like saline soil and drought. The pods are an important source of forage for livestock. Higher inclusion rates of pods in animal feed can cause toxicity issues. The foliage is generally unpalatable but may be eaten during drought.
This document discusses weed management. It defines weeds and describes how they negatively impact crop production by competing for water, nutrients, light, and space. It also discusses weed propagation through seeds and vegetative reproduction. Various classification systems for weeds are described based on life span, ecology, soil type, and place of occurrence. The document outlines the impacts of weeds including reduced crop yields and quality. Methods of weed control include mechanical (hoeing), cultural, and chemical controls. Cultural controls involve practices like field preparation, crop rotation, and intercropping. The document provides an overview of weed management strategies.
This document discusses the importance of fodder trees for small-scale farmers in tropical regions. It explains that fodder trees can provide a cheap source of protein for livestock through their leaves. They remain green during dry seasons when other foods are scarce. Some fodder tree species also fix nitrogen in the soil and provide other benefits. The document describes some commonly used fodder tree species and factors to consider when selecting types of trees, including climate suitability, nutrient content, and tolerance to pests and drought.
Ch 1 Crop Production and Management 1.pptxPratikMacwan5
The images show a plough and a cultivator.
Plough:
- An agricultural implement used for initial tillage of soil.
- Traditionally drawn by draft animals like oxen and horses.
Cultivator:
- An implement used for secondary tillage, after the main ploughing.
- It loosens and breaks up the soil to a shallower depth than the plough.
- Nowadays operated mechanically by a tractor.
The main differences are:
- Plough is used for primary deep tillage while cultivator is for secondary shallow tillage.
- Plough is heavier while cultivator is lighter.
- Plough is mainly
Germplasm Conservation in situ, ex situ and on-farm and BiodiversityKK CHANDEL
The variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems
Native bees are important pollinators of both wild plants and over 100 crop species. Their populations have declined in recent years, so establishing plantings of native flowers can help support native bee populations. Farmers and gardeners can help bees by planting patches of native plants that provide food throughout the growing season. A diversity of native plant species with different flowering times and flower shapes will attract different bee species. Maintaining these plantings provides food and habitat for bees as well as other wildlife.
Weeds can provide some benefits such as improving soil fertility and holding moisture, providing habitat for beneficial insects, and protecting soil from drying out. However, they are also harmful as they compete with crops for water and nutrients, reduce crop yields and quality, and can serve as hosts for plant diseases and pests. There are many different types of weeds including annuals, biennials, perennials, terrestrial and aquatic weeds, and parasitic weeds. Most weeds spread through seeds or vegetative reproduction, and various dispersal mechanisms help them colonize new areas like wind, water, animals, and human activities.
This document discusses breeding procedures for forage crops. It notes that forage breeding presents difficulties due to the diversity in pollination methods across species, irregularities in fertilization and seed setting, the perennial nature of most forage crops, and challenges in evaluating and maintaining new strains. It then provides examples of these difficulties for various forage species. The document goes on to describe varieties that have been released for different forage crops in India. It discusses the main characteristics important for grass breeding and objectives of forage crop improvement. Finally, it outlines breeding procedures and methods for different types of forage crops based on their mode of pollination.
Ch 1 Crop Production and Management 1.pptxdarshan69671
The document discusses key topics in crop production and management. It covers important agricultural practices like soil preparation, sowing, adding manure and fertilizers, irrigation, weeding and pest control, harvesting, threshing, and storage. Traditional and modern tools for each practice are described, such as the hoe, plough, and seed drill for soil preparation, and sprinkler irrigation and drip systems for irrigation. The document also discusses crop types, animal husbandry, and concludes with assignments for students.
The document discusses the classification and important crops of India. It classifies crops into three main classes - garden crops, plantation crops, and field crops. Field crops are further classified in several ways, including place of origin (native or exotic), botanical family, economic use, and season. The document then lists the major field crops of India and provides data on the production of important food crops by state for 2018-19, with the top three producing states identified for most major crops.
Insectivorous plants have specialized traps to capture prey like insects in order to obtain nutrients, particularly nitrogen. They are found in nutrient-poor soils like bogs and wetlands. Examples of insectivorous plants include Drosera, Venus flytrap, Nepenthes, Pinguicula, and Genlisea. Their traps vary in mechanism from active snap traps to passive traps that rely on stickiness or slippery surfaces. Most are found in tropical and subtropical regions. Seed dormancy and germination also vary between species. Insectivorous plants play important ecological roles and have complex interactions with other organisms like mosquitoes and moths.
This document discusses methods for extending the outdoor growing season for vegetables, including using protection like cloches and tunnels. It describes propagation methods like direct sowing, seed beds, and planting young vegetable plants. It also discusses crop rotation systems using four groups (legumes, brassicas, alliums, roots), the benefits of rotation in minimizing pests and helping successive crops, and limitations like personal taste preferences. Successional cropping through staggered plantings and crop varieties is described as well as intercropping, mixed cropping, and "cut and come again" vegetables that regrow after harvesting.
This document provides an overview of different classification systems for crops. It begins by explaining the importance of botanical classification, which is based on structural characteristics and divides plants into kingdoms, divisions, classes, orders, families, genera, and species. It then discusses classification by agronomic use, life cycle, season, climate, photoperiod, growth habit, and pollination type. The key systems covered include classification by food vs. fiber crops, annual vs. perennial crops, temperature zone, photoperiod requirements, determinate vs. indeterminate growth, and self- vs. cross-pollination. Examples are provided for different categories within each system to illustrate how crops can be classified.
The document discusses different types of pasture grasses and legumes that can be used as animal feed. It describes 7 common pasture grasses and their morphological characteristics including kangaroo grass, bala thana, carpet grass, cowfoot grass, mayura thana, rila thana and signal grass. It also describes 9 common pasture legumes and their traits such as katarodu, stylo, silver leaf, puero, peanut, dambala, kollu, aswanna and siratro. The document provides information on the botanical name, family, photos and preferable agro ecological zones of each plant variety.
1) Plants evolved adaptations that allowed them to thrive on land, such as a cuticle and stomata to retain water and a vascular system to transport resources.
2) Seed plants like angiosperms and gymnosperms reproduce using pollen and seeds, which allowed reproduction without free-standing water.
3) Humans have relied on plants for thousands of years, from early agriculture that allowed permanent settlements to modern economic trade of plant products valued in the billions.
This document discusses plant propagation, including definitions of seed propagation and vegetative propagation. Seed propagation involves growing plants from seeds, while vegetative propagation uses plant parts like stems or leaves. Some benefits of seed propagation are guaranteed germination rates and availability of a wide variety of seeds, while limitations include slower growth and not guaranteeing the traits of the parent plant. Vegetative propagation allows exact clones of the parent and is faster but requires more labor and costs. The document also covers seed harvesting, storage conditions for different types of seeds, and factors for germination.
Practical on Weed Identification of Kharif Crops by Dr.G.S.TomarDrgajendrasinghtomar
Procedure for identification of Common Weeds occurs in kharif season. Common name, growth habit and habitat of weed occurrence is given for the benefit of students and faculties of Agriculture. Presented by Dr.G.S.Tomar, Professor (Agronomy), IGAU, Raipur.
This document provides an introduction and literature review on neem (Azadirachta indica) seed germination and storage. Key points:
1. Neem is a multipurpose tree species found in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. Its seeds are used for medicine, pesticides, and other products. However, the seeds have short storage life and lose viability rapidly.
2. Previous studies have found conflicting evidence on whether neem seeds are recalcitrant, intermediate, or orthodox in storage behavior. Recalcitrant seeds cannot be dried without loss of viability while orthodox seeds can be dried and stored long-term.
3. The literature review covers physiological parameters like effects of
Plants are essential for ecosystems as they provide energy through photosynthesis. They get energy from sunlight and nutrients from the soil. All other organisms rely on plants directly or indirectly for food. Plants grow and reproduce through sexual propagation like seeds and pollination or asexual propagation like cuttings and bulbs. The seed contains an embryo, endosperm and seed coat. Roots absorb water and nutrients and come in many forms like taproots, fibrous roots, and aerial roots. Leaves perform photosynthesis and transpiration and come in many shapes and sizes.
Agri-crop Production (Propagation techniques)jessangtoots
plant propagation is the Process of multiplying or increasing the number of the same species and at the same time perpetuating their desirable characteristics
This document discusses weed management. It defines weeds and describes how they negatively impact crop production by competing for water, nutrients, light, and space. It also discusses weed propagation through seeds and vegetative reproduction. Various classification systems for weeds are described based on life span, ecology, soil type, and place of occurrence. The document outlines the impacts of weeds including reduced crop yields and quality. Methods of weed control include mechanical (hoeing), cultural, and chemical controls. Cultural controls involve practices like field preparation, crop rotation, and intercropping. The document provides an overview of weed management strategies.
This document discusses the importance of fodder trees for small-scale farmers in tropical regions. It explains that fodder trees can provide a cheap source of protein for livestock through their leaves. They remain green during dry seasons when other foods are scarce. Some fodder tree species also fix nitrogen in the soil and provide other benefits. The document describes some commonly used fodder tree species and factors to consider when selecting types of trees, including climate suitability, nutrient content, and tolerance to pests and drought.
Ch 1 Crop Production and Management 1.pptxPratikMacwan5
The images show a plough and a cultivator.
Plough:
- An agricultural implement used for initial tillage of soil.
- Traditionally drawn by draft animals like oxen and horses.
Cultivator:
- An implement used for secondary tillage, after the main ploughing.
- It loosens and breaks up the soil to a shallower depth than the plough.
- Nowadays operated mechanically by a tractor.
The main differences are:
- Plough is used for primary deep tillage while cultivator is for secondary shallow tillage.
- Plough is heavier while cultivator is lighter.
- Plough is mainly
Germplasm Conservation in situ, ex situ and on-farm and BiodiversityKK CHANDEL
The variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems
Native bees are important pollinators of both wild plants and over 100 crop species. Their populations have declined in recent years, so establishing plantings of native flowers can help support native bee populations. Farmers and gardeners can help bees by planting patches of native plants that provide food throughout the growing season. A diversity of native plant species with different flowering times and flower shapes will attract different bee species. Maintaining these plantings provides food and habitat for bees as well as other wildlife.
Weeds can provide some benefits such as improving soil fertility and holding moisture, providing habitat for beneficial insects, and protecting soil from drying out. However, they are also harmful as they compete with crops for water and nutrients, reduce crop yields and quality, and can serve as hosts for plant diseases and pests. There are many different types of weeds including annuals, biennials, perennials, terrestrial and aquatic weeds, and parasitic weeds. Most weeds spread through seeds or vegetative reproduction, and various dispersal mechanisms help them colonize new areas like wind, water, animals, and human activities.
This document discusses breeding procedures for forage crops. It notes that forage breeding presents difficulties due to the diversity in pollination methods across species, irregularities in fertilization and seed setting, the perennial nature of most forage crops, and challenges in evaluating and maintaining new strains. It then provides examples of these difficulties for various forage species. The document goes on to describe varieties that have been released for different forage crops in India. It discusses the main characteristics important for grass breeding and objectives of forage crop improvement. Finally, it outlines breeding procedures and methods for different types of forage crops based on their mode of pollination.
Ch 1 Crop Production and Management 1.pptxdarshan69671
The document discusses key topics in crop production and management. It covers important agricultural practices like soil preparation, sowing, adding manure and fertilizers, irrigation, weeding and pest control, harvesting, threshing, and storage. Traditional and modern tools for each practice are described, such as the hoe, plough, and seed drill for soil preparation, and sprinkler irrigation and drip systems for irrigation. The document also discusses crop types, animal husbandry, and concludes with assignments for students.
The document discusses the classification and important crops of India. It classifies crops into three main classes - garden crops, plantation crops, and field crops. Field crops are further classified in several ways, including place of origin (native or exotic), botanical family, economic use, and season. The document then lists the major field crops of India and provides data on the production of important food crops by state for 2018-19, with the top three producing states identified for most major crops.
Insectivorous plants have specialized traps to capture prey like insects in order to obtain nutrients, particularly nitrogen. They are found in nutrient-poor soils like bogs and wetlands. Examples of insectivorous plants include Drosera, Venus flytrap, Nepenthes, Pinguicula, and Genlisea. Their traps vary in mechanism from active snap traps to passive traps that rely on stickiness or slippery surfaces. Most are found in tropical and subtropical regions. Seed dormancy and germination also vary between species. Insectivorous plants play important ecological roles and have complex interactions with other organisms like mosquitoes and moths.
This document discusses methods for extending the outdoor growing season for vegetables, including using protection like cloches and tunnels. It describes propagation methods like direct sowing, seed beds, and planting young vegetable plants. It also discusses crop rotation systems using four groups (legumes, brassicas, alliums, roots), the benefits of rotation in minimizing pests and helping successive crops, and limitations like personal taste preferences. Successional cropping through staggered plantings and crop varieties is described as well as intercropping, mixed cropping, and "cut and come again" vegetables that regrow after harvesting.
This document provides an overview of different classification systems for crops. It begins by explaining the importance of botanical classification, which is based on structural characteristics and divides plants into kingdoms, divisions, classes, orders, families, genera, and species. It then discusses classification by agronomic use, life cycle, season, climate, photoperiod, growth habit, and pollination type. The key systems covered include classification by food vs. fiber crops, annual vs. perennial crops, temperature zone, photoperiod requirements, determinate vs. indeterminate growth, and self- vs. cross-pollination. Examples are provided for different categories within each system to illustrate how crops can be classified.
The document discusses different types of pasture grasses and legumes that can be used as animal feed. It describes 7 common pasture grasses and their morphological characteristics including kangaroo grass, bala thana, carpet grass, cowfoot grass, mayura thana, rila thana and signal grass. It also describes 9 common pasture legumes and their traits such as katarodu, stylo, silver leaf, puero, peanut, dambala, kollu, aswanna and siratro. The document provides information on the botanical name, family, photos and preferable agro ecological zones of each plant variety.
1) Plants evolved adaptations that allowed them to thrive on land, such as a cuticle and stomata to retain water and a vascular system to transport resources.
2) Seed plants like angiosperms and gymnosperms reproduce using pollen and seeds, which allowed reproduction without free-standing water.
3) Humans have relied on plants for thousands of years, from early agriculture that allowed permanent settlements to modern economic trade of plant products valued in the billions.
This document discusses plant propagation, including definitions of seed propagation and vegetative propagation. Seed propagation involves growing plants from seeds, while vegetative propagation uses plant parts like stems or leaves. Some benefits of seed propagation are guaranteed germination rates and availability of a wide variety of seeds, while limitations include slower growth and not guaranteeing the traits of the parent plant. Vegetative propagation allows exact clones of the parent and is faster but requires more labor and costs. The document also covers seed harvesting, storage conditions for different types of seeds, and factors for germination.
Practical on Weed Identification of Kharif Crops by Dr.G.S.TomarDrgajendrasinghtomar
Procedure for identification of Common Weeds occurs in kharif season. Common name, growth habit and habitat of weed occurrence is given for the benefit of students and faculties of Agriculture. Presented by Dr.G.S.Tomar, Professor (Agronomy), IGAU, Raipur.
This document provides an introduction and literature review on neem (Azadirachta indica) seed germination and storage. Key points:
1. Neem is a multipurpose tree species found in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. Its seeds are used for medicine, pesticides, and other products. However, the seeds have short storage life and lose viability rapidly.
2. Previous studies have found conflicting evidence on whether neem seeds are recalcitrant, intermediate, or orthodox in storage behavior. Recalcitrant seeds cannot be dried without loss of viability while orthodox seeds can be dried and stored long-term.
3. The literature review covers physiological parameters like effects of
Plants are essential for ecosystems as they provide energy through photosynthesis. They get energy from sunlight and nutrients from the soil. All other organisms rely on plants directly or indirectly for food. Plants grow and reproduce through sexual propagation like seeds and pollination or asexual propagation like cuttings and bulbs. The seed contains an embryo, endosperm and seed coat. Roots absorb water and nutrients and come in many forms like taproots, fibrous roots, and aerial roots. Leaves perform photosynthesis and transpiration and come in many shapes and sizes.
Agri-crop Production (Propagation techniques)jessangtoots
plant propagation is the Process of multiplying or increasing the number of the same species and at the same time perpetuating their desirable characteristics
Semelhante a Forage production and conservation and forage identification (20)
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
2. Forage production and conservation 2
25 – Lectures
06 – Practical
06 – Field practical
Course content
3. 3
Introduction
Forage classification taxonomy of grass and
legumes
Forages
Edible parts of plants, other than separated grain, that
can provide feed for grazing animals, or that can be
harvested for feeding. Includes browse, herbage, and
mast
4. Forage production and conservation 4
Forages refer to plants or plant parts that are
consumed by grazing livestock, including grasses,
legumes, and other herbaceous plants
They are cultivated or naturally occurring vegetation
that animals feed on for grazing or fodder
Scientifically, forages can be defined as:
"Forages are herbaceous plant species or parts
thereof, primarily grasses and legumes, cultivated or
found in natural habitats, which are utilized as feed
for grazing animals or harvested as fodder for
livestock, contributing to their nutritional
requirements and overall well-being"
5. Forage production and conservation 5
Palatable
Nutritious
Dense growing - good vegetative cover and
enough forage species available
Hearty (recovers well)
Tolerant to climatic extremes
Resistant to pests
Nutritious – provides animals with the energy,
protein, vitamins and minerals that they need
What Defines a “Good” Pasture Species?
6. 6
1. Palatability:
Palatable species are those that animals willingly
consume, promoting higher intake and better
utilization of the forage.
For instance, Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) is
highly palatable to many grazing animals like cattle,
sheep, and horses due to its tender and nutritious
leaves
2. Nutritious:
Good pasture species should offer a balanced array
of nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins,
vitamins, and minerals.
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), a leguminous forage
plant, is known for its high protein content, making
it a nutritious choice for grazing animals.
8. Forage production and conservation 8
3. Dense Growth:
Pasture species that provide good vegetative cover
and adequate forage availability are essential
Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) is a dense-growing
grass that forms a thick sward, offering ample grazing
material for livestock
4. Hearty and Fast-Recovering:
Species that are resilient and recover quickly after
grazing or adverse conditions are favorable
Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) is a quick-
growing grass that regenerates rapidly after grazing
or cutting, ensuring a consistent food supply for
livestock.
10. Forage production and conservation 10
5. Climate Tolerance:
Pasture species that can withstand climatic extremes,
such as drought or frost, are valuable
Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) is known for its
adaptability to various climates and is resistant to
drought, making it suitable for many regions
6. Pest Resistance:
Resilience to pests and diseases reduces the need for
chemical interventions
Birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) is a legume
known for its resistance to certain pests and
diseases, making it a sustainable option for pastures
12. 12
Generally fodders are grouped based on the plant family as,
Legume fodder (i.e. Leguminacea)
Non-legume fodders
Each group further classified has
* Annuals
* Perennials
• Legume fodder
* Annual (e.g. Cowpea, Berseem)
* Perennial (e.g. Alfalfa, Stylosanthes)
• Non-legume fodder
* Annuals (e.g. Fodder maize, Sorghum)
* Perennials (e.g. Hybrid napier grass, para grass)
Classification based on plant family and
duration of the crop
13. 13
Classification based on nutrient density in the dry
matter
Non-maintenance
Wheat straw
Rice straw
Maize and Sorghum stover
Jungle hay
Cereal forages harvested at
advanced maturity (i.e. over
mature)
Maintenance
Sorghum
Maize
Hybrid napier
All grasses
High protein
* Berseem
* Lucerne (Alfalfa)
* Cowpea
* All Legumes
Low protein
* Maize
* Barley
* Sorghum
* Root crops (e.g.,
turnips, sugar beets)
14. 14
Forage classification
(according to the duration of the crop)
Grasses
Perennials
Cool season
Warm season
Annuals
Cool Season
warm season
Legumes
Perennials
Cool Season
warm season
Annuals
Cool Season
warm season
Perennial – come back more than once
Annual – grows and dies in one season
16. Forage production and conservation 16
Annuals reproduce ONLY by seed
Perennials reproduce either by seed or vegetatively
(i.e., send up new plants from existing root structure)
- may appear to die back, but can recover
18. Forage production and conservation 18
Warm Season Plants:
Plants that begin growth and/or are planted in the
spring or early summer and do most of their
growth during the warmest part of the year
Cool Season Plants:
Plants that begin growth and/or are planted in the
fall or early spring and do most of their growth
during the coolest months of the year (except
during winter)
21. Forage production and conservation 21
Monocotyledons
Dicotyledons
Terminology forage and germination
Classification according to the cotyledons of
the seed
23. 23
Monocots (one seed leaf)
Herbaceous
Plant parallel leaf veins
Fibrous root system
Bear seed on an elongated seed stalk
Grass
Plants belong to family Gramineae (poaceae)
Herbaceous (not woody)
Monocotyledons
Consists of jointed stems and sheathed leaves
There are pasture and fodder grasses
Forage grasses
24. 24
Legumes
Dicots (two seed leaves)
“Netted” leaf veins
Usually have a taproot
Produce seed in a pod
Nitrogen fixation
Plants belong to family Leguminosae
(Fabaceae) that used as livestock feed
Dicotyledons
Consists of compound leaves
Seeds are in pods and Can fix N
There are pasture and fodder legumes
Forage legumes
25. Forage production and conservation 25
Forage classification
Grasses
Pasture
Short
Fodder
Tall
Legumes
Pasture
Short
Fodder
Tall
26. Forage grasses 26
1. Herbaceous Nature:
Grasses and forages are herbaceous, meaning they
have soft, green stems and do not have woody tissue
This adaptation allows them to grow quickly and
efficiently, making them suitable for grazing animals
and ensuring rapid recovery after grazing or cutting
2. Parallel Leaf Veins:
Their leaves have parallel veins, which aid in efficient
water and nutrient transport
This feature also contributes to their flexibility,
enabling them to bend without breaking in windy
conditions, which is crucial for their survival in open
habitats.
28. 28
Forage grasses
3. Fibrous Root System:
Grasses possess a fibrous root system consisting of many
thin roots that spread out near the surface of the soil
This network of roots helps anchor the plant in the ground
and facilitates efficient absorption of water and nutrients,
making them more drought-resistant and competitive in
nutrient-poor soils
4. Seed Dispersal:
Grasses bear seeds on an elongated seed stalk, known as a
spikelet
This adaptation is crucial for their reproduction and
dispersal
The seeds are often dispersed by wind, animals, or water
due to their lightweight nature or specific adaptations,
ensuring the spread of the grass species over a wider area
30. 30
Forage legumes
1. "Netted" Leaf Veins:
Forage legumes typically have net-like veins in their
leaves, known as reticulate venation
This structure enhances their ability to transport water,
nutrients, and sugars efficiently throughout the plant
2. Taproot System:
Most forage legumes have a taproot system, consisting
of a primary root that grows vertically downward
This type of root system allows these plants to reach
deeper into the soil for water and nutrients, enhancing
their ability to withstand drought conditions and access
resources that other plants may not reach
32. 32
Forage legumes
3. Seed Production in Pods:
Forage legumes produce seeds within pods
These pods protect the seeds and aid in their dispersal
4. Nitrogen Fixation:
These plants have a symbiotic relationship with certain
bacteria (such as Rhizobia) that live in nodules on their
roots
These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form
that the plants can utilize for their growth
This ability to fix nitrogen makes forage legumes essential
in enriching soil fertility and reducing the need for
synthetic nitrogen fertilizers in agricultural systems.
36. 36
About 40 species commonly used for pastures
Monocots
Identification
Parts of plant
Intolerance
Root system
Colour
Growth habit
Morphology of grasses
38. Forage production and conservation 38
Part of the stem (culm)
Node
Solid joint of a grass stem where
leaf sheaths are attached to stem
Internode
Region of the stem between the
nodes
40. Forage production and conservation 40
1. Culm:
The culm refers to the main stem of a grass
plant.
It provides structural support and serves as the
axis from which leaves, branches, flowers, and
seeds emerge.
Importance:
The culm is essential as it determines the
overall height and structure of the grass
It influences forage quality, palatability, and
ease of grazing or harvesting
42. Forage production and conservation 42
2. Node:
Nodes are the points along the stem where leaves,
branches, and reproductive structures, such as
flowers and seeds, originate
They are solid joints on the stem
Importance:
Nodes play a critical role in determining the
spacing and arrangement of leaves, which affects
the light interception, photosynthesis, and overall
productivity of the grass
Nodes also serve as important attachment points
for leaves and sheaths, influencing nutrient flow
and structural integrity.
44. Forage production and conservation 44
3. Internode:
Internodes are the segments of the stem between the
nodes
They determine the distance between leaves along the
stem
Importance:
The length and thickness of internodes influence
the stem's strength and flexibility.
Longer internodes may contribute to increased
forage yield but might decrease forage quality due
to increased stem-to-leaf ratio, impacting
digestibility and palatability for livestock.
46. Forage production and conservation 46
Part of the leaf
Blade
Portion of leaf connected to the sheath
Sheath
Surrounds the stem above the node where it
is attached
Collar
Region at the junction of the sheath and blade
Ligule
Appendage that clasps the stem where the
sheath and blade join
May be a membrane, a fringe of hairs, or a
hardened ring, and is generally a reliable
characteristic for identification
47. Forage production and conservation 47
Collar region
Where the sheath begins to enclose the
stem
Auricle
Earlike lobe; may be prominent and encircle
the stem or may inconspicuous or may be
absent
Outgrowths from the base of the blade
52. Forage production and conservation 52
1. Blade
The flat, often green, expanded portion of the leaf
It's crucial for photosynthesis, the process by which
plants convert light energy into chemical energy,
providing sustenance for the plant
2. Sheath
Surrounds the stem above the node where it is attached
It provides protection to the stem and helps in
anchoring the leaf to the stem, ensuring stability
3. Collar
The region at the junction of the sheath and blade
It can act as a protective barrier against pests and
diseases, safeguarding the plant's vulnerable parts
56. Forage production and conservation 56
4. Ligule
An appendage that clasps the stem where the
sheath and blade join
It plays a role in preventing debris and pathogens
from entering the stem
The ligule's characteristics, whether it's a
membrane, fringe of hairs, or hardened ring, can be
vital in identifying different grass species
5. Auricle
Outgrowths from the base of the blade
Auricles help to hold the leaf blade close to the
stem, contributing to the plant's structural integrity
66. Forage production and conservation 66
1. Panicle:
This is a type of inflorescence characterized by
many branches
It consists of a main stem with multiple smaller
stems or branches, each bearing flowers or
smaller clusters of flowers called spikelet
Panicles can have a diverse and complex
structure, often with a branching pattern that
may be pyramidal or spreading
Wheat and oats are examples of grasses that
have panicle-type inflorescences
69. Forage production and conservation 69
2. Spike:
A spike is an unbranched inflorescence with flowers
attached directly to the central stem or axis
The flowers are sessile (without a stalk) and are
arranged along the main stem
Barley and rye are examples of grasses that have
spike-type inflorescences
71. Forage production and conservation 71
3. Raceme:
This type of inflorescence consists of a central
axis with spikelet attached to it along one side
Each spikelet can contain multiple flowers or
floret
The arrangement can resemble a simple,
elongated structure with the spikelet arranged in
a line along the main stem or branch
Timothy grass is an example of a grass species
with a raceme-type inflorescence
77. Forage production and conservation 77
Grass awns are elongated appendages or bristles
found at the ends of grass seeds
These structures often play a role in seed dispersal,
attaching to fur or clothing and aiding in the
movement of seeds to new locations
Awns come in various lengths, numbers, and
arrangements, contributing to the diversity of grass
species.
78. Forage production and conservation 78
Length-based classification:
1. Short awns:
These awns are relatively small, usually less than 1
centimeter in length
They might be straight or slightly curved
An example is found in some varieties of wheat
(Triticum aestivum) where short awns can be
present on the seed heads
81. Forage production and conservation 81
2. Long awns:
Long awns are significantly larger, usually more
than 1 centimeter in length
They can be straight, twisted, or have various
shapes
An example is wild oat (Avena fatua), which has
distinctive long awns that contribute to its seed
dispersal
83. Forage production and conservation 83
2. Number-based classification:
1. Single awn:
Some grass species have only one awn per seed
Foxtail barley (Hordeum jubatum) is an example of
a grass with a single awn per seed
2. Multiple awns:
Other grasses have multiple awns per seed, which
can range from two to several awns
Brome grasses (Bromus spp.) are an example of
grasses with multiple awns per seed
91. Forage production and conservation 91
Rhizomes:
These are underground horizontal stems that grow
parallel to the soil surface
They typically spread out horizontally and produce
new shoots and roots at nodes along their length
Rhizomes help in vegetative propagation and aid in
the plant's ability to spread and colonize new areas
Stolon (also known as runners):
Stolon are similar to rhizomes but grow above the
ground horizontally
They are stems that run along the surface and
produce new plants at nodes
Stolon plays a role in vegetative reproduction and can
help the grass spread and form new colonies
92. Forage production and conservation 92
Fibrous roots:
Grasses have a fibrous root system characterized
by numerous fine roots that spread out from the
base of the plant
These roots are highly branched and spread
extensively in the top few inches of soil
Fibrous roots help anchor the grass in the soil,
absorb water and nutrients, and contribute to
the overall stability of the plant
98. Forage production and conservation 98
Natural Color Variations:
Green:
The most common and typical color of healthy grass is
various shades of green. Different grass species exhibit
distinct shades of green, ranging from light to dark, and
may have a bluish or yellowish tint.
Blue-green:
Some grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis),
exhibit a distinct blue-green hue, especially when well-
fertilized and adequately watered.
Reddish or Bronze:
Under certain conditions, especially stress like drought or
cold, some grasses may take on a reddish or bronze color.
For instance, fine fescues or certain cultivars of tall fescue
might develop a reddish tint in response to stress.
102. Forage production and conservation 102
Folded Leaves:
In rolled or Folded Inwards:
Some grass species have leaves that exhibit folding inward along
the midrib or central vein. In this case, the leaf margins or edges
curl towards the center of the leaf, enclosing the upper surface of
the leaf blade inside.
Characteristics:
When viewed from the top, the leaf appears rolled or folded with
the upper surface partially or entirely hidden. This inward folding
is often more noticeable in the early stages of leaf growth.
Adaptations:
Folded leaves can be an adaptive mechanism to conserve
moisture, reduce water loss through transpiration, and protect
the leaf from environmental stressors like heat or excessive
sunlight.
103. Forage production and conservation 103
Rolled Leaves:
Rolled or Folded Outwards:
Conversely, some grass species have leaves that exhibit rolling or
folding outward along the margins or edges, exposing the upper
surface of the leaf blade to the outside.
Characteristics:
When viewed from the top, the leaf edges curl away from the
midrib, and the upper surface of the leaf blade is visible. This
rolling can vary in degree, from slight rolling to a tighter
cylindrical shape.
Adaptations:
Rolled leaves might also aid in reducing water loss by minimizing
the leaf surface exposed to direct sunlight, potentially
preventing excessive dehydration during periods of heat or
drought.
112. Forage production and conservation 112
1. Petiole
The stalk by which a leaf is attached to the stem
(leafstalk)
2. Stipules
A pair of leaf-like outgrowths/appendages that occur
at the base of the petiole
3. Stolon
Shoot that bends to the ground or that grows
horizontally above the ground
115. Forage production and conservation 115
Petiole:
The petiole in legumes refers to
the stalk that attaches the leaf
blade to the stem
This structure can vary in length
and thickness among different
legume species
It's an essential part of the leaf
structure that supports the leaf
blade, allowing it to capture
sunlight for photosynthesis
116. 116
Stipules:
Stipules in legumes are appendages that occur at the
base of the petiole, and they can have varying shapes,
sizes, and textures.
Stipules are often leaf-like or membranous structures
and can be an important characteristic in identifying
different legume species.
118. Forage production and conservation 118
Stolon:
Stolon in forage legumes refer to specialized stems
that grow horizontally above the ground.
While stolon are more commonly associated with
grasses, some legumes also produce stolons or
runners.
Example:
White clover (Trifolium repens) is an example of a
forage legume that can produce stolons.
These stolons creep along the soil surface,
producing nodes from which new plants emerge.
Stolons in legumes help with vegetative
propagation and spreading of the plant.
132. Forage production and conservation 132
Pasture grasses
Fodder grasses
Short
Used in grazing systems
Brachiaria spp
Rye grass
Tall
Used in cut and carry (stall-fed /zero-
grazing systems )
Napier spp.
Guinea grass
137. Forage production and conservation 137
Pasture legumes
Fodder legumes
Short like pasture grasses
Using in grazing systems
Pueraria
Centrosema
Desmodium
Tall
Used in cut and carry stall-fed/zero grazing
systems
Gliricidia
Ipil-ipil
Erythrina
144. Forage production and conservation 144
Cultivated
Legumes (e.g. Alfalfa/ Lucerne)
Cereals (e.g. Sorghum, Oats, Maize)
Root crops (e.g. Turnip, Sugar beet)
Forest edibles (e.g. Grasses, Shrubs and tree leaves)
Plantation (e.g. Fruits and fruit tree wastes)
Grasslands/ Pasture
Managed (e.g. Legume, Grass, Shrubs, Fodder trees)
Unmanaged (e.g. Grasses, Bushes)
Aquatic
Fresh water (e.g. Water hyacinth, Azolla)
Sea or brackish water (e.g. Marine algae)
Classification based on plant type
145. Forage production and conservation 145
Natural vs. cultivated forage
Also known as natural pasture
Found in road side, river bants, tank beds,
abandoned lands, grass lands, forests etc.
Not maintained ( establishment, weeding,
fertilization, etc. not done)
Low yield compared to cultivated forage
establishments
Mostly poor in quality (low palatability, nutrient
and energy content, digestibility)
May contain harmful compounds (anti nutritive
substances)
Natural forages
146. Forage production and conservation 146
May need to supplement with concentrates to
balance rations of livestock ; thus may be
expensive
147. Forage production and conservation 147
Cultivated forages
Also known as cultivated / manmade pasture
Forages are grown and maintained to feed
livestock
High yield compared to natural pasture
Mostly better in quality
Species and varieties are been developed
through breeding (selection) in order to
improve palatability, greater nutrient, and
energy content, high digestibility
Less anti nutritive factors
149. Forage production and conservation 149
Grasslands / Pasturelands
Also known as pasture
A field covered with grass (and legumes)
Can be natural or cultivated