Levels of Organization 1 An Introduction to the Human Body 2 The Chemical Level of Organization 3 The Cellular Level of Organization 4 The Tissue Level of Organization Support and Movement Regulation, Integration, and Control Fluids and Transport Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange Human Development and the Continuity of Life

1. CHAPTER-1 [
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2. INTRODUCTION
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GENERALPHYSIOLOGY

3. INDEX
S.No. Content
1. Introduction to Physiology
2. Body fluids and electrolytes
3. Body cavities and membrane
4. Plasma membrane and Fluid Mosaic model
5. Sodium potassium pump
6. Illness and disease
7. Application in nursing

4. General
Physiology-
Basic Concepts

5. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology is the study of normal body function. It
explains how different systems of the body are
organized and how they interact with each other to
perform different functions. It also explains how
these functions are maintained by different
controlling mechanisms in normal conditions and
how they are adjusted when body tries to adapt to a
changing environment. The knowledge of
physiology extends from molecules to cell and
organs and finally to bodily systems.

6. MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

7. BODY FLUIDS
Water is the most abundant compound of the human body, comprising
about 60–70% of adult body weight. Due to the specific arrangement
pattern of oxygen and hydrogen atoms, the water is a polar molecule
and can combine with a variety of negatively and positively charged
ions. Due to this property the water is considered as a universal solvent.
Various electrolytes of the body remain dissolved in the body water and
form the body fluid.

8. BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS
INTRACELLULAR COMPARTMENT
This is conceptualized as the total space present within all the cells. The
fluid presents in this compartment is termed as the intracellular fluid
(ICF).
EXTRACELLULAR COMPARTMENT
This is conceptualized as the total space available outside the cells. The
fluid present in this compartment is termed as the Extracellular Fluid
(ECF). The extracellular space and the extracellular fluid within it are
further classified into three main divisions:

9. INTERSTITIALSPACE
This represents the total space present in between the cells. Accordingly,
the fluid present in this space is called interstitial fluid (ISF).
INTRAVASCULAR SPACE
This is the space present within the blood vessels. The fluid present in
this space represents the plasma portion of the blood.
TRANSCELLULAR FLUID
This represents the fluid present in different body spaces. About 5% is
the transcellular fluid. Usually, any increase in transcellular fluid
indicates a pathological condition.

10. DISTRIBUTION OF BODY FLUID IN RELATION TO FAT
AND MUSCLE TISSUE
Muscle cells hold more water; and fat cells have less water content. So,
when muscularity is increased, the body water content increases and
when body fat increases, the body water content is decreased. About
50% of body water remains in muscle tissue. Females have less amount
of total body water due to higher content of body fat. TBW bears a
constant relationship with the fat-free body mass also called lean body
mass (LBM) and it has been estimated that the total body water is 70%
of LBM, irrespective of age and gender.

11. ELECTROLYTES
Chemically, electrolytes are substances present in
body fluids, that become ions; either positively or
negatively charged in solution and acquire the
capacity to conduct electricity. Electrolytes in
body fluids include potassium (K), sodium (Na),
chloride (Cl), magnesium (Mg) and phosphate
(HPO4). Plasma concentrations of K+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, and phosphate are very low compared with
their concentrations in cells and bone.

12. MAJOR INTRACELLULAR ELECTROLYTES
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Phosphate

13. CONCEPT OF HOMEOSTASIS
There is every possibility that the properties of ECF can change.
This is because the ECF represents an open system. It is exposed to
the external environment through the skin, lungs, and GI tract. So,
external changes will influence ECF. When there is increased
sweating due to increased environmental temperature, it can
deplete ECF volume and loss of sodium ions. Again, decreased
oxygen in atmosphere can reduce the normal oxygen level of the
blood leading to hypoxic (less oxygen supply to the cells)
condition. Furthermore, internal pathological conditions can also
alter ECF conditions. A close interrelation exists between ECF and
ICF, cell function and organ function.

14. CONCEPT OF FEEDBACK CONTROL
According to model of homeostatic control, the output from effectors
affects the initial change of the variable. This is called feedback
mechanism . It is of two types:
Negative feedback mechanism
Positive feedback mechanism
In the negative feedback mechanisms, the parameter if increased
initially is reduce back to normal, or if decreased initially is increased to
its original state by the effects produced by the effectors. Therefore, the
negative feedback mechanisms dampen the initial effects of the stimulus
or the stimulus itself.

15. In positive feedback, if initially, the parameter was increased it is
increased further or if initially it was decreased, it is decreased further.
Therefore, the positive feedback the effect produced by the effectors
intensifies the initial effects of the stimulus or the stimulus itself.

16. MEMBRANE AND GLANDS
MEMBRANES
Membranes are boundaries, Cell membrane acts as cell boundaries.
Similarly, membranes are present outside and inside of different organs,
and body cavities and tubes. Two basic membrane types are mucous
membrane and serous membrane.

17. BASIC MEMBRANE
TYPES
 Mucous Membranes
 Serous Membranes

21. CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTUREAND
FUNCTION
Membrane Structure
This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its
surrounding environment.
Composition of Cell Membrane
Membrane is composed of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Proteins
are most abundant followed by lipids and carbohydrates. Membrane
lipids are composed of phospholipids (major amount) and cholesterol
(fewer amount).

22. STRUCTURE OF CELLMEMBRANE

23. FUNCTION OF CELLMEMBRANE
Barrier
Transport
Cell to cell interaction
Signaling
Metabolic function
Support
Cell recognition and antigenic property

24. MEMBRANE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Membrane transport is a collective term for various mechanisms by
which substances move in and out of the cell across the cell membrane.
Transport processes maintain intracellular (ICF) fluid volume and
composition that are vital for maintaining cellular function and hence
life.

25. DIFFERENT TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of solution from an area of high concentration
to an area of low concentration through a selective permeable
membrane which allows the solvent but not the solutes.
Diffusion
Diffusion is a passive transport mechanism and does not require any
carrier molecule. It is a process of spontaneous passive movement
(without requiring any energy) of molecules from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.

27. MECHANISM OF OSMOSIS

45. Active Transport
Active transport, as the name implies, requires energy for transport.
Energy is required because movement occurs against the concentration
gradient. This process also requires a carrier protein molecule. Active
transport can be of two different types: Primary Active transport and
Secondary Active transport.

46. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ACTIVETRANSPORT
MECHANISM

74. DISEASE AND ILLNESS
Disease is a state of the body characterized by altered normal structure
and function of the bodily systems with deleterious consequences. The
homeostatic imbalances are the root cause of diseases. In disease, the
feedback regulations become nonfunctional or they fail to normalize the
altered condition. A disease may be described in relation to the
following terms:
Etiology: Cause of the disease
Pathogenesis: The nature of the disease process and its effect on
normal body functioning
Complications: The consequences which might arise if the disease
progresses
Prognosis: The likely outcome of a disease

75. Etiology
Genetic Abnormalities, Either Inherited orAcquired
Infection by Micro-organisms
Physical and ChemicalAgents
Malnutrition

76. APPLIED ASPECTS (DISORDERS
RELATED TO MEMBRANES)
Peritonitis
This is the inflammation of the peritoneum, the serous membrane that
lines the digestive organs and the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity.
Pneumothorax
A pneumothorax or collapsed lung occurs when air accumulates in the
pleural cavity surrounding the lings. This can cause due to trauma and
chronic lung disease.

77. APPLICATIONS IN NURSING
Intravenous (IV) therapy or IV infusion is the infusion of fluid directly
into the venous circulation of a patient, usually via a cannula. This therapy
is indicated when a patient suffers from dehydration, electrolyte imbalance
or blood loss due to haemorrhage.
Safe administration of intravenous fluid requires the knowledge of the role
of electrolytes and water in the body, the mechanism for movements
between different body compartments and how fluid balance is maintained.

78. Calculating the drip rate is an important step before IV administration.
The drip rate determines the speed at which the fluid is infused into
the patient’s venous circulation and it refers to the number of drops
that enters into the filling chamber per minute.
Intravenous fluids are based on their tonicity. They can be isotonic,
hypotonic and hypertonic. They can also classified as colloid or
crystalloid.

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