Agriculture, which is the mainstay of the economies of many developing countries, is highly depends on climatic conditions. This paper aimed at reviewing the climate change and its impacts on agricultural production with the specific objectives of reviewing the farmer’s adaptation strategies and barriers to the climate change and the impacts of climate change on agricultural production and food security in sub Saharan Africa countries. Empirical evidence shows that most of the smallholder famers in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced the adaptation strategy of switching from planting high water-requirement to low water-requirement crops, planting diversified crops, changed planting dates to correspond to the change in the precipitation pattern and mixed cropping. The farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change has faced by access to information, extension services and access to credit. The effect of long-term mean climate change has significance impacts on global food production and affects all dimensions of food security in several ways ranging from direct effects on crop production to changes in markets, food prices and supply chain infrastructure which may require ongoing adaptation. Finally, effective institutions on climate change at the global level help to facilitate the policy implementations and to combat the impact of climate change.

1. Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review from Sub-Saharan African Perspective
Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production:
An Empirical Review from Sub-Saharan African Perspective
*Firomsa Mersha1, Amenu Leta2
1Department of Agricultural Economics, Haramaya University, Ethiopia
2Department of Agricultural Economics, Ambo University, Ethiopia
Agriculture, which is the mainstay of the economies of many developing countries, is highly
depends on climatic conditions. This paper aimed at reviewing the climate change and its impacts
on agricultural production with the specific objectives of reviewing the farmer’s adaptation
strategies and barriers to the climate change and the impacts of climate change on agricultural
production and food security in sub Saharan Africa countries. Empirical evidence shows that
most of the smallholder famers in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced the adaptation strategy
of switching from planting high water-requirement to low water-requirement crops, planting
diversified crops, changed planting dates to correspond to the change in the precipitation pattern
and mixed cropping. The farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change has faced by access to
information, extension services and access to credit. The effect of long-term mean climate change
has significance impacts on global food production and affects all dimensions of food security in
several ways ranging from direct effects on crop production to changes in markets, food prices
and supply chain infrastructure which may require ongoing adaptation. Finally, effective
institutions on climate change at the global level help to facilitate the policy implementations and
to combat the impact of climate change.
Key words: Climate Change, Agriculture, Production, Sub-Saharan, Review
INTRODUCTION
Climate change is the worldwide environmental threats
that seriously have emotional impact on agricultural
productivity and which affects humankind in several ways,
including its direct influence on food production (Enete and
Amusa, 2016). According to IPCC (2014), the concept of
climate change refers to the change of climate over time
(long-run variability) because of human and non-human
made activities while climate variability refers to the
shorter-term variation or seasonal or multi seasonal of the
climate. Climate change is predicted to have an effect on
rains, increase the frequency of drought, and lift average
temperatures, threatening the provision of water for
agricultural production (IFAD, 2009).
Africa is one of the parts of the world that is the most
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (IPCC, 2014;
Niang et al., 2014). Even though the climate change is
worldwide problem, developing countries, like Sub
Saharan African is the most adversely affected by climate
change due to their dependence on agriculture as well as
their poor financial, technical and institutional capacity to
adapt (Singh & Purohit, 2014; Rose, 2015). The impacts of
climate change such as rising global average temperature
and changes in precipitation are deliberately clear with
impacts already affecting ecosystems, biodiversity and
human systems. In addition to climate change, land
degradation and desertification are also expected to affect
African countries (Hummel, 2015). This is because the
livelihoods of millions of peoples who are poor and
vulnerable are presently threatened by Climate change
which altering the natural and physical resources they
depend on generally and agricultural production
particularly (Mesfin and Bekele, 2018).
Agriculture, which is the backbone of the economies of
many developing countries, is highly depends on climatic
conditions that are beyond the farmers’ control
(Egbendewe et al., 2017; Mohammed et al., 2016).
*Corresponding Author: Firomsa Mersha, Department of
Agricultural Economics, Haramaya University, Ethiopia.
E-mail: firomer2008@gmail.com
Review Article
Vol. 5(3), pp. 627-633, November, 2019. © www.premierpublishers.org, ISSN: 2167-0477
Journal of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development

2. Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review from Sub-Saharan African Perspective
Mersha and Leta 628
Agriculture is considered as the largest main economic
activities in Africa by providing the employment for
approximately 60 percent of the population, and more than
50 percent of GDP (Collier et al., 2008). In most of Sub-
Saharan African countries, climate change would have
negative effects on agricultural production which leads to
lower farm incomes, increase of poverty, hunger and
malnutrition, particularly in rural areas, with rain-fed
agriculture as the main job (Abdulai, 2018; Lokonon and
Mbaye, 2018; Di Falco, 2014; Ahmed et al., 2011).
Even though Africa is the country which mainly dependent
on agriculture has been the lowest source of Greenhouse
Gas emission owing due to the lack of industrial
development (Gemeda & Sima, 2015), it is the most
vulnerable to the impacts of global climate change
(Hummel, 2015; Rose, 2015; Niang et al., 2014; Singh &
Purohit, 2014; Bewket, 2012).
Fighting the impact of climate change on agricultural
productivity through creation of adequate knowledge of
farmer’s awareness on adaptations, causes for the climate
change and taking measures at universal level as well as
at a national, regional and local level is important. In
addition, policy options for effective institutions help for
negotiation on climate change among all parties are
important issues that may help to combat the impact of
climate change.
The purpose of this paper is to review farmer’s adaptation
strategy, barriers to climate change and its impact on
agricultural production and food security in sub-Saharan
Africa.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The sources of information for this review are mainly
secondary. As much as possible, the paper reviews the
recent published articles about the climate change on
agricultural production, its impact on food security of
households, the farmers’ adaptation strategy and barriers
in sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, it considered only
studies published in English during the most recent
decade in Sub-Saharan Africa. Publications were
identified by keyword searches with Google Scholar. In
addition to this, government and non-government
agencies produced reports on the issues in Sub-Saharan
Africa were used.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Causes and Measures to Reduce its Effects
Harris and Roach (2016) defined the global climate
change as the changes in global climate, such as global
1
pre-industrial period is the period from1850-1900 in most literatures,
However, Hawkins et al. (2017) systematically defined with justification
the period from 1720-1800
temperature, precipitation, storm frequency and intensity,
and changes in carbon and water cycles, that resulted from
the increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. It is a worldwide challenge that need an
international collective action to carb its negative effects
(Schenck, 2008). The impacts of climate change is
becoming visible in all fields but with highly related to
agriculture and human health (FAO, 2016). Although other
factors also contributing for climate change, it is
confidently concluded in (IPCC, 2014) that the emissions
of greenhouse gases is mostly due to anthropogenic
factors resulted from human activities.
Global warming which is an increase in average global
temperature resulted from emissions from human activities
is one of the peculiar manifestations of climate change
(Harris and Roach, 2016). According to the latest report of
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) report of
2017, it has been confirmed that the year 2016 was the
warmest year of record with a remarkable 1.1 OC above
the pre-industrial period1.
Greenhouse gases increase the global warming by
absorbing infrared radiation resulted in trapping heat to
make the planet warmer (EPA, 2017). It was also indicated
in the same document that the most important GHGs that
directly emitted by anthropogenic process are carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), along
with several other fluorine-containing halogenated
substances. Compared to the pre-industrial era,
concentrations of CO2, CH4 and N2O have increased by
44%, 162% and 21%, respectively in the globe
(NOAA/ESRL, 2017).
If a business continued as usual without significant
intervention to reduce the greenhouse gas emission, the
global average temperature will increase ranging 2.5OC
and 7.8 OC by 2100, relative to pre-industrial levels as
forecasted by IPCC (2014). It is understandable that
business as usual costs more than intervening to mitigate
the impacts of climate change. In fact, international
communities have already recognized the threat of climate
change and started tackling the hurdle by designing
different climate change strategies and policies. One of the
powerful international policies is the Kyoto protocol of 1997
(UN, 1998). This protocol is an international treaty ratified
by 165 nations aiming to reduce GHG emissions in
developed nations. There have been also several other
national and regional policies and strategies to combat
GHG emissions in developing nations like European
Unions and US. To implement policies and strategies to
reduce GHG emissions, numerous policy options have
been proposed internationally. However, there is no a
single best option as each of them has their own
advantages and limitations.

3. Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review from Sub-Saharan African Perspective
J. Agric. Econ. Rural Devel. 629
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Farmer’s Adaptation Strategy and Barriers to Climate
Change
The results of the several studies carried out in Sub
Saharan African on issues related to farmers’ adaptation
strategy and barriers to climate change were discussed
here under.
• Adaptation Strategy to Climate Change in Sub
Saharan African
The famers in Sub-Saharan Africa where arable farming is
predominant have experienced increased pests and crop
diseases, increased crop water requirements, leading to
crop failures, reduced crop production. The climate
change and climate variability have led to decreased
livestock weight and an increase in livestock death. These
imply loss of farm income and livelihood for the majority of
the rural population. Hence, it creates a general
deterioration in welfare of the farmers (Sofoluwe et al.,
2011; Mengistu, 2009). Because of these reasons, farmers
have adopted adaptation measures or coping mechanisms
to dampen the adverse effects of climate change in Sub-
Saharan Africa.
Switching from planting high water-requirement to low
water-requirement crops were the leading adaptation
strategy that pointed out by different studies (Gandure et
al., 2012; Yesuf et al., 2008; Deressa et al., 2008). Planting
diversified crops, changed planting dates to correspond to
the change in the precipitation pattern, planting tree crops,
mixed cropping and off-farm income generating activities
were also observed by different studies in SSA. (Gandure
et al., 2012; Mengistu, 2009; Deressa et al., 2008).
Where most countries are water stressed, the farmers
have developed water conservation methods such as
water harvesting, waste water re-use in agriculture and
crop irrigation (Gandure et al., 2012; Mengistu, 2009).
Farmers in West Africa, where most countries experience
short intensive rainy season plant short duration crops,
practice upland farming and soil conservation methods
(Sofoluwe et al., 2011). Some farmers, especially in
southern and some parts of East Africa have switched from
arable to livestock farming (Mengistu, 2009; Deressa et al.,
2008).
To adapt to climate change in sub-Sahara Africa, livestock
or pastoral farmers have dug more boreholes in drier
regions, switched to off-farm income generating activities
and have reduced the number of livestock, by slaughtering
and/or selling them during extended drought periods and
restocking after the drought (Gandure et al., 2012;
Deressa et al., 2008). Some other livestock farmers have
switched to livestock that can withstand water stress and
hot temperatures (Nzeadibe et al., 2011).
• Barriers to Climate Change Adaptations in Sub
Saharan African
Farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change has challenged
by numerous barriers. Institutional factors that influence
adoption of new technologies are access to information via
extension services and access to credit (Deressa et al.,
2008). According to the study’s results, extension
education is an important factor that motivates increased
intensity of the use of specific soil and water conservation
practices (Deressa et al., 2008). Among several of the
sources of knowledge, agricultural extension is that the
most vital for analyzing the adoption selections of
reconciling measures.
Different studies pointed out that access to credit is
another important barrier to adoption of agricultural
technologies. It increases financial resources of farmers
and their ability to meet transaction costs associated with
various adaptation options they might want to adopt
(ACCCA, 2010).
Impact of climate change on agriculture and food
security
The several studies carried out in sub-Saharan African on
issues related to influence of climate change show that the
long-term mean climate change have significant impacts
on global food production and greater risks to food security
due to different situations are discussed below.
Impact of climate change on agricultural production
Study by Gornall et al. (2010) pointed out the effect of long-
term mean climate change as to have significance impacts
on global food production and may require ongoing
adaptation; greater risks to food security and extreme
weather events. Historically, low precipitation events have
been attributed many of the largest falls in crop productivity
(Kumar et al., 2004; Sivakumar et al., 2005). However,
even small changes in mean annual rainfall has an impact
on productivity (Gornall et al., 2010). Another study shows
that climate response function indicated that, West Africa
suffers the greatest losses amounting between 36% and
44% of the losses for the entire continent, which means
this damage; represent losses between 42% and 60% of
agricultural GDP in this region (Mendelsohn et al., 2000).
Hoffmann (2013) found out that crop yields show a strong
correlation with temperature change and with the duration
of heat or cold waves and differ based on plant maturity
stages during extreme weather events. The result of
Gornall et al. (2010) also shows that the change in
temperature, rainfall and severe weather events are
expected to reduce crop yield in many regions of the
developing world, particularly sub-Saharan Africa and
parts of Asia. High-temperature sensitivity thresholds for
important crops such as maize, wheat and sorghum have
been observed with large yield reductions once the
threshold is exceeded and maize, which is one of the most

4. Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review from Sub-Saharan African Perspective
Mersha and Leta 630
common crops in sub-Saharan Africa, has been found to
have a particularly high sensitivity to temperatures above
30 0C within the growing season (Luo, 2011). Different
study shows that crop production is the most significantly
influenced by Climate variability year to year, even in high
yield and high-technology agricultural areas (Kang et al.,
2009).
Moreover, different studies show that climate extremes will
alter the ecology of plant pathogens, and higher soil
temperatures can promote fungal growth that kills
seedlings (Patz et al., 2008). Similarly, the effect of CO2
fertilization remains uncertain but important. Depending on
crop variety and region, assuming positive CO2
fertilization may even reverse the direction of impacts.
However, major crops in West Africa are C4 crops, such
as maize, millet and sorghum, which benefits less from
higher CO2 concentration, so that the positive effect may
be overestimated (Roudier et al., 2011). In general, the
overall effect of climate change on yields of major cereal
crops in the sub-Saharan African region is very likely to be
negative, with strong regional variation (Niang et al.,
2014).
Livestock production in Sub-Saharan Africa is additionally
susceptible to global climate change. Livestock is an
important source of food (such as meat and milk and other
dairy products), animal products (such as leather), income,
or insurance against crop failure (Seo and Mendelsohn
2007). The pastoral systems of the drylands sub-Saharan
Africa are highly dependent on natural resources,
including pasture, fodder, forest products and water, all of
which are directly affected by climate variability (Djoudi et
al., 2011). Livestock is vulnerable to drought, particularly
where it depends on local biomass production (Masike and
Ulrich 2008), with a strong correlation between drought
and animal death (Thornton et al., 2009). Available soil
could also be reduced by human influences, together with
moves toward exaggerated biofuel cultivation, veterinary
fencing, increasing competition for land and land
degradation (Morton 2012; Sallu et al., 2010).
Impact of climate change on food security
FAO, defined food security as a situation which ‘‘exists
when all people at all times have physical or economic
access to sufficient safe and nutritious food to meet their
dietary needs and food preferences for an active and
healthy life’’ (FAO 2008a). From this definition, food
security consists of four key dimensions: food availability
(production, distribution, trade and exchange), food
accessibility (affordability, allocation and preference), food
utilization (nutritional and societal values and safety) and
food stability (FAO 2008a).
In Sub-Saharan Africa climate variability and extreme
weather, events such as droughts, excessive rains and
floods are the main threats affecting agricultural
productivity and hence rural household food security. A
failure of the time of year is directly joined to agricultural
failure reducing food convenience at social unit level
additionally as limiting rural employment potentialities
(Haile, 2005).
Climate change and extreme weather events affect all
dimensions of food security in several ways ranging from
direct effects on crop production to changes in markets,
food prices and supply chain infrastructure (FAO, 2008a;
Gregory et al., 2005). Specifically, climate change will
reduce food availability, because it will negatively affect
the basic elements of food production such as soil, water
and biodiversity. Access to food be affected by climate
change events in terms of direct impacts on agricultural
zones affecting incomes, employment opportunities,
macro economy and GDP that shape livelihoods in many
ways, including forms of social protection (Boko et al.,
2007).
In addition, physical, economic, and social access to food
will be severely compromise by climate change and
variability because as agricultural production declines,
food prices rise, and purchasing power decreases (von
Braun, 2008). In many developing countries, between 10
and 40% of cereal consumption will have to be covered by
imports. Many of those countries, however, lack the
foreign exchange to finance food imports, thus putting
them at risk of increased food insecurity (Shah et al.,
2008). Currently, the SSA region’s net cereal imports
amount to approximately 7 million tons, but the impact of
climate change may result in a net import of roughly 143
million tons of cereal by 2080 (Shah et al., 2008). Food
stability is viewed in relations to stability of crop yields and
food supplies that will be negatively affected by variable
weather conditions and influenced by the temporal
availability of, and access to, food (FAO, 2008a).
Recent studies recommend that whereas the globe food
provide does not seem to be seriously vulnerable by the
projected international changes in climate, food insecurity
in Africa can worsen and the population at the risk of
hunger will increase in terms of both percentage and
absolute numbers during the coming century. Finally,
climate change poses threats to food utilization through its
impacts on human, including the spread of diseases such
as malaria, HIV/AIDS, and undermines livelihood
capability and food security at various scales (Boko et al.,
2007).
According to the IPCC (2007) report, the causal
contribution of climate to food insecurity in Africa is still not
fully understood, particularly the role of other multiple
stresses that enhance the impacts of droughts and floods
and possible future climate change.

5. Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review from Sub-Saharan African Perspective
J. Agric. Econ. Rural Devel. 631
CONCLUSION
Agriculture, which is the mainstay of the economies of
many developing countries, is highly depends on climate
change which is the worldwide environmental threats that
seriously have emotional impact on agricultural
productivity and it affects humankind in numerous ways,
including its direct influence on food production. However,
most of the farmers in sub-Sahara Africa were aware of
the impact of climate change especially changes in
temperature and precipitation, their ability to ongoing
adaptation to climate change has challenged by numerous
barriers. Finally, effective institutions for negotiation on
climate change at the global level help to facilitate the
policy implementations and hence to combat the impact of
climate change. All parties (both developed and
developing countries) can play a role but with common and
differentiated responsibilities for each.
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7. Climate Change and Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review from Sub-Saharan African Perspective
J. Agric. Econ. Rural Devel. 633
Accepted 15 September 2019
Citation: Mersha F, Leta A (2019). Climate Change and
Its Impact on Agricultural Production: An Empirical Review
from Sub-Saharan African Perspective. Journal of
Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, 5(3): 627-
633.
Copyright: © 2019: Mersha and Leta. This is an open-
access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author and source are cited.