1. FEATURE ARTICLE
Thinking skills within the
humanities discipline
by Dr Catherine Milvain
Dr Catherine Milrain There is now less controversy about whether the main purpose of
undertook research for her education is to impart knowledge (content) or to develop thinking
Doctoral Studies at Mount skills. Both are needed. But content may be delivered in a more effective
Warerley Secondary College manner tlian the old maxim of 'teaching to the test', and this is the
when tins college was purpose of a thinking curriculum. Such a curriculum aitns to set
introducing a majidated learning outcomes to become the vehicle for introducing specific higher
thinking curriculum before order thinking skills so ttiat students may then apply them in classroom
VELS had set tins educational situations but, more importantly, take them into the rest of their lives.
purpose. She has taught across Content must be 'rich' and selected for its ability lo contribute to the
primary and middle years in use of thinking skills and strategies. Tlshman, Perkins and Jay (1995:
both state and indepmdent 62) view this co-dependence of knowledge and thinking ability as "the
schools and, for two years warp and weft of intellectual competence" for one holds and supports
uith Nadia Cavallin, was an the direction of tlie other Thinking skills and the topics arising witliin
fnnoration and Excellence a Humanities curricultim just 'go together'. How can you investigate
Catherine Milvain issues relevant to society and environment witliout drawing upon
Officer nitlm the Brunsuick
cluster. Cath currently operates an educational consultancy thinking skills and how easy is it to use these rich concepts as the
business and is employed as a sessional tutor in Humanities at context in which to develop ttiinking processes?
Deakin Uim wsity and the Uni? 'ersit)> ofMelbounte. Cath can be
contacted at Catherine, m @bigponä. com.au. As teachers, we are well aware that thinking is not a new skill for
our classrooms. Recognising tlie benefit of raising the cognitive level
Since the introduction of new directives about pedagogy and of students as part of a school cnrriculum was promoted by earlier
curricuiutn which have followed the introduction of the Victorian educators (Dewey, 1933; Bloom, 1956, Piaget, 1950). However, in the
Essential Leaming Standards (VEIS), thinking has taken a more past, activities to strengthen tiiinking skills were often seen as most
pronounced part of our lesson planning aiid delivery. In fact, it is appropriate to use only with 'gifted' students, or as incidental addenda
required tliat the teacliing of thinking processes become 'infused' into to a classroom task. Effective thinking procedures can [lo longer
all areas of curriculum. Within this article, research is examined to give be seen as the sole domain of able students (and 'fast finishers') as
purpose to this new direction of curriculum, and suggestions are made tliese strategies should be available for all students to affect how they
for how thinking pi-ocesses can become an effective and engaging part construct and apply knowledge. These are the skills required to take
of Hutnanities lessons. them into the next stage of their lives and their future workplace,
as more sophisticated thinking is needed in employment than was
Why do we need to teach thinking required by previous generations.
skills? Students will operate in what futurists term the "Ttie Information
Age", where knowledge becomes a tradable commodity and a driving
increased pressure is being placed on schools to equip students for
force of global life. This form of knowledge does not just mean the
a future puiportedly detemiined and dominated by technological
régurgitation of data, but rather the ability to control knowledge - how
and societal changes and this has direct impact upon the teaching
to access, organise, analyse, evaluate and effectively use infonnation.
of Huniiinities in both primary and secondary schools. One method
This is an imporiant element of a Humanities curriculum. Knowledge
available for teachei-s to address this challenge oí coping with change is to
will need to be applied in too many ways for all to be anticipated,
ensure tliat ttiinking skills are intentionally taught wilhin classrooms.
so emphasis is being moved from the lower cognitive skills of recall
Ethos ; Vol 16, No 4, 2008

2. and retrieval, to an ability to use information to construct new who states that there are three dimensions to intelligence: the neural
understandings. As working conditions and lifestyles continue to dimension, the experiential dimension and the reflective dimension.
change, students need skills and dispositions to adapt what they already Neural intelligence he explains is basically influenced by genetics aiid
know and to confidently seek out wtiat they do not know. Students need physical maturity. This dimension of iutelligeiice can be damaged
assistance to become what is temied 'life-long learners'. To competently before birth (pregnant mother smoking, drug taking, poor nutrition
make this transition into tomorrow's world, students need to begin to etc), and after birth (trauma, road accidents etc). Wliile it can be
make some changes today and this is the goal of including thinking sustained, it does not change with instruction and practice. Experiential
processes into Hum;inities. Equipping our students to be responsible intelligence can be improved by experience and practice in an activity
citizeas of the world is a main purpose of our Humanities teaching; (e.g. violin playing) but while it can be improved by experience there
tlierefore, using tlie multiple perspectives of a Humanities curriculum, is little transfer to skills in otber areas. Reflective intelligence Perkins
combined witli tlie purposeful development of higher order thinking, describes as knowing wbat questions to ask yourself and monitoring
would set an ideal educational environment for our students. and striving to direct and improve your own tbinking - metacognition.
Perkins holds this dimension can be improved by learning, and it is
possible to transfer tbis good thinking from one area to another.
How has thinking skills research
informed us? ... reflective intelligence offers tlie best target of opportunity for
education because reflective intelligence is the most leamable of
As clianges in educational practice input our classrooms and busy
the three.... better practices of mental management, strategy
teachers are asked to implement these changes, they need to be assured
use, and metacognition can be cultivated in much shorter
lliat in doing so tliey are not simply 'pusMng someone else's barrow',
periods-not overnight, but in months rather than years, years
but are in fact, following good practice which will have a beneficial
rather than decades. (Perkins, 2002:8)
effect for the students under tlieir care. Teachers need to know that
including thinking skills in their programs is based upon proven So, if we accept Perkins' understanding of the reflective dimension of
ttieories whicb are based upon strong empirical findings arising out intelligence as supporting tlie teaching of thinking skills, what actually
of analysis of classroom practice. Teachers need to know tliat ibinkirig are thinking skills and how are they best taught in our Humanities
skills can be tauglit :ind bow tbey can best do tbis. Tbeir professional classrooms?
knowledge needs to be satisfied if tbey are to change pedagogy and
redesign content delivery. What are thinking skills?
Perhaps the greatest support for the premise tbat 'good' thinking can The tenn 'tliinking skills' combines the process of cognition together
be taught to our students comes from the work of David Perkins (2002) with the ability to apply tbese attributes in the completion of tasks.
Critical Thinking which VELS recognises as: Creative thinking which VELS Reflective Thinking wliich VELS recognizes
Reasoning, processing and inquiry recognises as creativity as Reflection, evaluation and metacognition
Defining problems Persevering Reflecting
Observing Elaborating Evaluating
Setting goals Inferring Self-evaluating
Formulating questions Restructuring Self-assessing
Encoding Hypothesising Establishing criteria
Deducting Visualising Verifying
Comparing Imagining Validating
Constrasting Experimenting
Ciasslfying Making analogies
Justifying Interpreting
Ordering Problem recognition
Predicting Problem anticipation
Recalling Problem solving
Representing Eîçtoring
Hypothasising Modifying
Representing Constructing
Analysing Developing
Identifying errors Generating
Identifying main ideas Devising
Summarizing
Clarifying Predicting
Ethos: Vol 16, No 4, 2008

3. The following table categorises some thinking skills and, while not revised). Acronyms and the development of questioning skills. Teachers
offered as a finite list, it offers direction for the range of thinking to will be very familiar with these thinking tools and there are numerous
be explicitly included in the design of lessons. Not all skillsrigidlysit publications which contain units of work based around using such
within the given classification and, in fact, some thinking skills can tools. Many schools are developing scope and sequence charts to spread
be seen in multiple columns. Nor does this categorisation imply that the teacliing of these thinking tools across all levels of the school, but
one aspect of thinking negates or inhibits another - our students need it is imperative to remeinber that these are thinking tools not skills.
all. Aspects of caring thinking are integral to the Physical, Personal Unless the scope and sequence planning recognises the development of
and Social Learning strand of VELS. When students are working the complexity of thinking skills, they are merely divvying up a grab
with all these dimensions of thinking, they are said to be engaged in bag of tools.
multidimensional thinking.
Thinking Behaviours and Dispositions
Research by Carol McGuinness (1999) has outlined what she terms a
core framework for the teaching of thinking skills. Art Gosta examined the behaviour of people recognised in the
community as being successful citizens such as Gandhi and Mariin
. the need to make thinking skills explicit Luther King. He identified many similarities among these people and,
« teaching thinking through a form of coaching with Bena Kallick (2000a-d), developed a set of characteristics for
. taking a metacognitive perspective behaving intelligently - Habits of Mind - where practised behaviour
. collaborative leaming eventually becomes part of a person's intrinsic actions - a mental
» creating dispositions and habits of good habit. While the teaching of behaviour is not always
thinking Students need this an accepted possibility, teachers are able to set an
. going beyond a focus on skills to inciude environment where these 'habits' can be practised
the idea of a thinking curriculum within
thinking to be
to become pari of behaviour The old adage "you
a thinking classroom within a thinking modelled for them, can lead a horse to water bnt cannot make it drink"
school. to be then given giv&s understanding to ttiis aspect of a disposition
These teaching strategies are not new to many opportunities such towards thinking.
teachers but it is the aspect of ensuring that the
inclusion of actually 'teaching' thinking - not
as open ended tasks, There are three distinct components that are
hoping it will develop through osmosis - that problem solving to necessary for dispositional behaviour ability,
becomes an essential practice. Students need this practice these skills inclination and sensitivity. Ability concems the
thinking to be modelled for them, to be then given and, with appropriate basic capacity to carry out a behaviour Inclination
opportunities such as open ended tasks, problem concems the motivation or impulse to engage in
solving to practice these skills and, with appropriate
feedback, to reflect the behaviour. Sensitivity concems likelihood of
feedback, to reflect on their personal outcomes. on their personal noticing occasions to engage in the behaviour.
This reflection is more about process than product. outcomes. Ron Ritchhart (2002) develops this aspect of
As with much leaming, this is best done within di^ositional behaviour ajid temis it 'Intellectual
a collaborative atmosphere where students are exposed to the ideas Character' which consists of showing the disposition to be: open-
and opinions of other students and where their own thinking can be minded; curious; metacognitive: a tmtli seeker; sceptical and strategic.
clarified or challenged. Such a teaching environment fits well with the This intrinsic response to a thinking disposition and behaviour is not a
Humanities discipline. quickly achieved goal and is best undertaken on a whole school basis
where every aspect of the daily educational environment supports this
behaviour In moving these habits and dispositions into therepertoireof
How do we teach thinking skills? students, teachers are working at Perkins' level of reflective intelligence.
There are multiple ways in which thinking can be developed in the
classroom and this article identifies three approaches in which the Rich concepts
effectiveness of thinking can be nurtured in a Humanities' discipline: Cognitive acceleration can be understood as 'raising the bar' - setting
developing skills tiirougli the use of thinking tools; enculturing a cognitively demanding challenge that is within the perceived
thinking dispositions and behaviours; and ensuring that the selection capability of the student and supporting the student as the task is
and presentation of content is rich aiid will cognitively challenge undertaken. Students are presented with tasks that are progressively
students to engage in liigher order thinking. What is involved in each of difficult - ones which are just beyond their current level of ability and
these pathways? understanding, but are within reach of their capabihty of learning, at
this more complex level, with the help/support of others. This concept
Teaching thinking tools of scaffolded leaming draws on the work of Vygotsky (I962) and his
There are multiple thinking tools but the ones most often used are: understanding of an individual's Zone of Proximal Development
Six Tliinking Hats, Bloom's Revised Taxonomy, Graphic Organisers, (ZPD). This again reflects the benefit of collaborative group work where
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences (Mis), Ryan's Thinker's Keys (also students leam with, and from, their peers. A well designed unit of work.
Ethos: Vol 16, No 4, 2008

4. Using Questions to Explore
Different Perspectives
Domains Thinking Processes; Humanities
Dimensions: Reasoning, Processing and Inquiry; Historical
reasoning and inteipretation
Conc^ts/skills: Generate questions which allow them to view
issues from multiple perspectives and viewpoints.
Consider tbe impact of war on people and
countries in ttie twentietli and twenty-first
centuries. Recognise that in bistory tliere are
multiple perspectives and partial explanations.
driven by a generative question, a contention, a problem to be solved, or
Objective: To use questions to inquire into a primary
autlieutic scenario, asks students to respond with a disposition towards
resource to better understand its relevance to
using thinking behaviours and allows them opportunities to apply and
inform our understanding of history. Critically
practice skills, wbile addressing tbe importajit discipline-dependent
evaluate sources of evidence for context,
components of the tasks. No one pathway is better than the otber, and
information, reliability, completeness, objectivity
all are involved in setting a thinking culture witbin tbe classroom.
and bias.
Tbe followifig diagram suggests these three pathways as supporting the
advancement of thinking skills. ocus Questions: The range of questions posed for students might
involve:
Supporting Thinking Skills
Questions whicb probe assumptions
ln all the above methods, thinking processes are best driven by tbe use
• For wbat purpose was tbis poster created?
of thoughtfully structured questioning techniques. Questions in the
• Is there a particular point of view portrayed by
classroom are no longer just associated with the 'lazy student' wbo does
the poster?
not know (understand) because be bas not paid attention or listened
carefully enougti. Questions are now more frequently used to probe, Questions which probe for reasons and evidence
ctiallenge and extend understanding of a concept. If a question is • Wliat does tbis poster tell us about this time in
'fertile' (Harpaz; accessed 2008) it gives rise to sub-questions to furiber bistory?
'open' the content and develop different levels of cognition. Following, • How reliable is this poster as a source of
is an outline of a Humanities lesson whicb deliberately builds on the infonnation?
use of questions to guide understanding of a primary resource. Some • What symbols are used in the poster?
aspects of tbis work will be publisbed on tbe website of VCAA. Tbe
accompanying poster would be shown to tbe students and from class Questions that ask about viewpoints or perspectives
discussion, tbe idea of generating questions to examine and identify • What do tbe words on tbe posier mean?
different perspectives is establislied. Tliese questions would allow • Wliat is the main message of tbe poster?
students to make connections with tbe infonnation whicb is presented. Questions that probe implications and
Sample questions are shown to guide this generation of student consequences
analysis.
• Why is the designer/promoter of the poster
trying to get bis/tbeir message across?
Putting into practice: thinking and • Who do you think produced this poster?
humanities
In adopting a thinking curriculum into our humanities classroom, Possibie lesson format
we need to focus on three imporiant aspects: a) what are the details Tbe teacber would need to discuss what is regarded as a primary source
of tbe kind of thinking I want to help my students learn; b) wbere in of information,
wbat I already teacb is there content tbat can be used for tbis sort of
thinking; and c) bow will I organise lessons 1 teach to include this sort Tbis discussion would incorporate the need to question authenticity,
of tbinking? Perkins states tliat thinking can often suffer from missing interpretation, probability of bias.
opportunities ratber tlian from poor skills. Tbe following outline is . Set the time of World War 1. Central to tbis study would be
offered to bigliliglit tbe deliberate inclusion of tliinking leaming tbe need for students to consider time, people and countries
outcomes within woiit that would be usual content of Humanities - involved, impact on society, pressure, implied and explicit
analysing a primary source of information. emotions.
Ethos : Vol 16, No 4, 2008

5. where in the design of my unit of work will I specifically include
thinking skills - is a great step in improving student engagement and
classroom leaniing.
The mind is not an empty vessel to be filled, but a fire to be kindled.
(Plutarch.)
REFERENCES
Bloom, Benjamin; Engiehart, M.D.; Fürst, E.J.; Hill, W.H. and
Krathwohl, D.R. 1956. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
Handbook I - Cognitive Domain. David McKay. New York.
Costa, Arthur; Kallick, Bena. 2000a. DLxovering and Exploring Habits
of Mind. Association for Supervision and Curriculuin Development.
Virginia.
Costa, Arthur; Kallick, Bena. 2000b. Activating and Engaging Habits
of Mind. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Virginia.
Costa, Arthur; Kallick, Bena. 2(ï)0c-Assessing and Reporting on
Habits of Mind. Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development. Virginia.
Costa, Arthur; Kailick, Bena. 2000d. Integrating atid Sustaining
with permission
Habits of Mind. Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development. Virginia.
« Teacher led discussion of how a country might ask its citizens
to become part of a voluntary army. Dewey,John. 1933-//ÖW We Think: A restatemmit of the relaUonsíñp
. The poster is then presented to the students. of subjective tinnking to the educative process. D. C. Heatli.
« Allow time for initial responses before undertaking deeper Boston.
discussion. Godhino, Sally; Wilson, Jeni. How to Succeed uith Questioning. 2004.
. Remind students of points raised in earlier step - time, people, Curriculum Corporation. Melbourne.
countries, explicit and implied messages etc.
. Tliese perspectives (and reieviint otliers which initial responses Harpaz, Yoram: Teaching and Learning in a Community of
may have opened) are discussed and used to generate questions TImking. ht4)://www. leam i ngtoleam.sa.edu.au/Colleagues/fi les/
which examine and explore the relevance of the poster to the links/Teaching_and_Leaniing_in_a.doc
broader aspect of the effect of war. Tliese questions would allow McGuinness, Carol. 1999. From Thinking Skills to TImking
them to make connections with the information which is C/AîAroom,^'. http:/Avww.sustainablethinkingclassrooais.qub.ac.uk/
portrayed. DFEE_Brief_115.pdf
Conclusion Perkins, David, 2002. "Mindware and the Metacurriculum". http://www.
newhori2ons.org/fu ture/Creating_the_Future/cifut-perkins.htm
It is hoped this article strengthens teacher knowledge of thinking skills
within the Humanities discipline. Many teachers may respond "I've Piaget, J. 1950. The Psychology of Intelligence. Adams and Co. New
been doing tliat for years" but it is important to ask has the teaching Jersey
of thinking skills been explicit, have you talked with the students Ritchhart, R. 2002. hitellectual Clmracter: W!)at it is, why it matters
about the thinking that you are doing, have you deliberately initiated and how to get it. San Francisco. Jossey Bass.
situations for all students to expand their knowledge of thinking skills,
have you coached the students with appropriate feedback, and have Tishnian, Shari; Perkins, David; Jay, Eileen. 1995. The Thinking
all your students challenged themselves about what they are thinking Classroom. Allyn and Bacon. Boston.
and learning. Including thinking skills as an explicit part of planning Vygotsky, L. (¡962). Thought and Language. M.I.T. Press, Institute of
- what tool could I teach, what thinking behaviour will I encourage, Technology. Cambridge, Massachusetts.
10 Ethos: Vol 16, No 4, 2008