This document provides an overview of several prominent theories of human development, including: 1. Biological theories proposed by Darwin and Lorenz that emphasize natural selection and imprinting. 2. Learning theories proposed by Pavlov, Skinner, and Bandura that explain development through classical and operant conditioning as well as social learning. 3. Psychoanalytic theories proposed by Freud and Erikson that view development as progressing through psychosexual stages and developing virtues at each life stage. 4. Cognitive theories proposed by Piaget and Vygotsky that describe child development as progressing through sensory, preoperational, concrete, and formal operational stages of increasing logical and abstract thought.

1. V.M.WESTERBERG’S SUPER BRIEF THEORY SERIES
There are 6 Theories of Development (or how we become who we are)
1.Biological (Darwin, Lorenz)
2.Learning (Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura)
3.Psychoanalytic (Freud, Erikson)
4.Cognitive (Piaget, Vygotsky)
5.Attachment (Bowlby, Ainsworth)
6.Moral (Kohlberg, Piaget)
7.Social (Bronfenbrenner, Baltes)
BIOLOGICAL theories of development
Charles Darwin’s “Theory of Evolution”
Natural selection and survival of the fittest. Nature is unforgiving: if individuals
do not adapt, they will die.
Darwin observed that prenatal development was extremely similar in all species,
supporting his theory that we are the result of evolution.
Konrad Lorenz’s Ethological (animal behaviour) Theory of imprinting.
Chomsky language acquision device
LEARNING theories of development (Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura, Patterson)
1.Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory:
Classical conditioning of reflexes is an association between two stimuli.
Of these two stimuli, one is neutral (conditioned) and in the beginning has no
meaning, like the sound of a bell.
The other stimulus is one that does already have a natural meaning for the
individual, like food (unconditioned). Individuals salivate when they see or
smell food.
If every time the individual sees or smells food, we ring a bell, there will be a
time when ringing the bell means food and the individual will salivate.

2. We can put an end to this association when the bell is not followed by food. This
is called extinction.
2.Skinner’s operant conditioning theory
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behaviour. Through operant conditioning, an association is
made between a behaviour and the consequence of that behaviour.
Concepts in operant conditioning:
Reinforcer is anything that favours the maintenance of a behaviour. There are
two kinds of reinforcers:
1. Positive reinforce: ‘add something positive” like a praise or treat for the
behaviour. The behaviour is likely to be repeated or maintained. Well
done! Here, have a lolly!
2. Negative reinforce: remove something negative, like “if you do your
homework, you will not have to mow the lawn tomorrow”.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behaviour increases.
Punishment, decreases a behaviour. There are two kinds of punishment:
1. Positive punishment, an active punishment like a slap in the hand.
2. Negative punishment, removal of something good, like no dessert after
dinner.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behaviour decreases.
3.Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Learning happens through modelling, that is imitation of what other people do.
For Bandura the individual is influenced by the environment (parents smoke,
child will smoke), but the environment is influenced by the individual (child
becomes a smoking adult whose children will smoke).
Patterson’s Coercive Family Interaction Learning Model

3. (a) children learn aggressive behaviours from parents who rarely reinforce
prosocial behaviours, use harsh discipline, and reward their children's
aggressiveness w/ approval & attention
(b) over time, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate.
Patterson developed an intervention designed to stop a coercive cycle by
teaching parents effective child management skills and providing them with
therapy to help them cope more effectively with stress.
PSYCHOANALYTIC theories of development (Freud and Erikson)
1.Freud’s Psycho-sexual theory.
For Freud, human psychological structure (our mind) has got 3 levels:
• the ID (Instincts= what we reeeally want to do: impulses, desires)
• the EGO (person = nEGOtiator between desires [id] and correctness
[superego])
• the SUPER-EGO (what we should do according to SOciety, our
conscience).
According to Freud, personality develops in 5 stages:
Oral Stage : 0 - 1 year
Sucking is the main source of pleasure. Infants interact with the world through
their mouth. The mouth is vital for eating and therefore development and
survival.
If the child does not suck enough, s/he may develop an oral fixation later in
life, examples of which include thumb-sucking, smoking, fingernail biting and
overeating. If the child sucks too much s/he may develop into a pleasure
seeking personality. Infants are all Id (instincts).
Anal Stage: 1 - 3 years
Bladder and bowel relief cause pleasure. Retention causes pressure and
discomfort.
Too strict toilet training can result in an excessive need for order or cleanliness
later in life, while too little or no training can lead to messy or destructive
behaviour later in life.
Phallic Stage: 3 - 6 years

4. Touching the genitals causes pleasure. However, this is not acceptable (no!).
In this phase, children develop an attraction for the opposite sex parent,
which means conflicting interests between the child and the same sex parent. To
cope with this conflict, the child acts like the same-sex parent. This is how
the Super-ego appears.
This conflict is called Oedipal Complex in boys and Electra Complex, in girls.
Latent Stage: 6 - 12 years
During this stage, the child does not have any urges. The superego continues
to develop (through socialization) while the id is supressed.
Genital Stage: From 12 years
Sex becomes the main source of pleasure. The onset of puberty causes the ID to
become active once again.
During this stage, youngsters develop a strong interest in sex. If development
has been successful to this point, the individual will become a well-balanced
person.
2. ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY
This is the theory that gave rise to the term "identity crisis."
Erikson was the first to propose that humans developed in "stages" throughout
our entire lifespan, not just childhood. Failure to successfully complete a stage
can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more
unhealthy personality. Success in each stage means the acquisition of a virtue.
1. Trust Vs. Mistrust ( 0 – 1 year) Virtue: Hope
Newborns and infant’s are completely dependent on their caregiver to satisfy
their basic needs. When the baby cries because he is hungry or his diapers need
changing, his mother feeds or changes him. This ways the child develops a
sense of trust in the world, he knows that he can hope for a dependable
someone to satisfy his needs and care for him.
However, when his mother does not respond to the baby’s need or does it
inconsistently and the baby cries for hours for food or waiting to be changed, the
infant will have a sense of mistrust, that is, he feels that the world is unreliable
and that if you don’t get things for yourself, nobody is going to do it.
2. Autonomy vs. Doubt (1-3 years) Virtue: Will

5. At this age the child begins to explore his environment. When the parents are
supportive and encourage him to do things by himself but still protect him from
danger, the child feels a sense of autonomy (hey, l can do this, and I will!)
However, when parents or caregivers do not let the child do things for himself,
like getting dressed when he says he can do it, the child may question or doubt
his capacity to do things and may be reluctant to try new experiences in the
future.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years) Virtue: Purpose
When the child reaches this age, children are very eager to please their parents.
They want to accomplish activities on their own for a certain purpose, taking
initiatives. Caregivers must promote this sense of initiative in them by, for
example, letting them arrange their birthday party.
On the other hand, he may feel guilty about his needs and wants if the parent
would not allow him to take initiative.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years) Virtue: Competence
At this age, children are more eager than ever to learn more things, and want to
master skills like reading and writing, to the extent that they compete with other
children. They become very industrious, especially when praised by parents
and teacher for their accomplishments. They feel they are competent at what
they are doing.
However, if they are never praised for their efforts or are constantly punished for
their mistakes, they may feel inferior and their self-esteem becomes low.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 19 years) Virtue: Fidelity
Becoming an adolescent involves feeling a mixture of emotions. At this age, the
teenager wants to find out his true identity, wants to know who he really is
through the role he plays in his environment. They are more influenciable by
friends than by family. Their fidelity to friends is very strong.
If he fails to overcome this identity crisis, he will feel confusion which may
affect his entire adult life.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20 to 45 years) Virtue: Love
At this age, an individual develops intimacy and strong emotional attachments
with one special person, whom he loves and who loves him, he feel he has
encountered that special someone with whom he can share the rest of his life.
Aaaah, that’s love.

6. However, when he sees that his friends settle for good to form their own families
and he is left without anyone to accompany him, he may feel isolated and
withdrawn from society.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (45 to 65 years) Virtue: Care
At this age, the person wishes to produce or generate something of real value
for the benefit of the younger generation, because he cares for them. That is
generativity.
When, he fails to do so, he may feel that he is unproductive and stagnant.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (65 years onwards) Virtue: Wisdom
Towards the end of life, the person tends to look back at his past years. When
he feels that he had lived a fine life and has been true to his principles and
values, he would have a sense of satisfaction or of (ego) integrity. All those
years of life experience lead to wisdom.
However, he may have a sense of despair if he feels he was unproductive, or
has many regrets, or was not able to accomplish his life goals.
COGNITIVE theories of development (Piaget, Vygotsky)
Short version of Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Piaget proposed the existence of four stages, or "periods," during which children
and adolescents master the ability to use symbols and to reason. He believed
that biology was the most important factor for learning.
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth – 2 years old) The child can only interact
with the world through senses and motion. This is the stage where a child
does not know that physical objects remain in existence even when out of
sight (object permanence).
2. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7) The child is not yet able to understand
abstract concepts (hunger, disease, freedom) and needs concrete physical
situations to understand them (hunger is when you don’t eat anything
during recess)
3. Concrete operations (ages 7- 11) The child starts to conceptualize.
Abstract problem solving is possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic
equations can be solved with numbers, not just with objects.
4. Formal operations (ages 11-15) By this point, the child’s cognitive
structures are like those of an adult and include long term planning.

7. Key Concepts:
Schemas - A schema is a mental category.
For example, a child may have a schema (mental category) about a type of
animal, such as a dog (doggy category). If the child's sole experience has been
with dogs, a child might believe that all animals that are furry and have four legs
are doggies.
Suppose that the child encounters a sheep. The child will say “doggy” in an
effort to assimilate, that is, make the new object fit in his mental category.
When he is told that it is not a doggy but a sheep, the child creates a new
schema for sheep. The creation of a new schema is called accommodation.
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called
equilibration. It is important to maintain a balance between previous
knowledge (assimilation) and changing knowledge and behaviour to account for
new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration allows children to move from
one stage of cognitive development into the next.
Long version of Piaget’s cognitive theory:
1. Sensorimotor
2. Preoperational
3. Concrete operational
4. Formal operational
1.Sensorimotor Stage:
The first stage of Piaget’s theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and
is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. During the
sensorimotor stage, an infant’s knowledge of the world is limited to their sensory
perceptions and motor activities. Behaviours are limited to simple motor
responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children utilize skills and abilities they
were born with, such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening, to learn more
about the environment.
Object Permanence:
According to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most
important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development. Object
permanence is a child's understanding that objects continue to exist even when
they cannot see or hear the object. E.g.: peek-a-boo.

8. Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage:
The sensorimotor stage can be divided into 6 separate substages that are
characterized by the development of a new skill.
1.a. Reflexes (0-1 month):
During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through
inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.
1.b. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):
This substage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a
child may suck his or her thumb by accident, like it and then later intentionally
repeat the pleasurable action.
1.c. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):
During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins
to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the
environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put
it in his or her mouth or let it fall.
1.d. Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):
During this substage, children begin exploring the environment around them and
will often imitate the observed behaviour of others. Children begin to recognize
certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize
that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.
1.e. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):
Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth
substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way
of getting attention from a caregiver.
1.f. Early Representational Thought (18-24 months):
Children begin to develop symbols (language) to represent events or objects in
the world in the final sensorimotor substage.
2.Pre-operational Stage:
The preoperational stage occurs between ages 2 and 6.
Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that
children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic and are unable to
take the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism.

9. During the preoperational stage, children also start using symbols, as evidenced
by the increase in make-believe playing and pretending. For example, a child
is able to use an object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom
is a horse. Role playing also becomes important during the preoperational
stage. Children often play the roles of "mommy," "daddy," "doctor" and many
others.
2.a. Egocentrism:
Children at this stage are unable to take on another person's perspective. If they
can see or feel something, everybody does.
2.b. Conservation:
Put the same amount of water in 2 short glasses. Pour the contents of one of
them into a tall, narrow glass. Ask which glass contains more water. The taller
glass must contain more water because it’s bigger.
Few children showed any understanding of conservation prior to the age of five.
3.Concrete Operational Stage
The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until
approximately age eleven.
During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations.
Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty
understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
3.a. Inductive logic:
Children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use of
inductive logic, that is, going from a specific experience to a general principle.
However, children at this stage have difficulty doing the opposite, using
deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the
outcome of a specific event.
3.b. Reversibility:
Awareness that mental categories (schemas) can be reversed. For example, a
child might be able to recognize that Bobby, his or her dog, is a Labrador, that a
Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal. So an animal is a dog and a dog
is Bobby.
4.Formal Operational Stage:
The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve to and lasts
into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about
abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and
systematic planning also emerge during this stage.
4.a. Deductive logic:

10. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to determine a
specific outcome. This type of thinking is required in science and mathematics.
4.b. Abstract Thought:
Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider
possible outcomes and consequences of actions that they have never
experienced. This type of thinking is important in long-term planning.
4.c. Problem-Solving:
In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. During the
formal operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical
and methodical way emerges, they are able to quickly plan an organized
approach to solving a problem.
How Piaget’s Theory Impacts Learning
Curriculum–Educators must plan a developmentally appropriate curriculum that
enhances their students’ logical and conceptual growth.
Instruction–Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences–or
interactions with the surrounding environment–play in student learning. For
example, instructors have to take into account the role that fundamental
concepts, such as the permanence of objects, play in establishing cognitive
structures.
VYGOTSKY’S Cognitive Mediation Theory.
Vygotsky believed that learning comes first and causes development, regardless
of your inherited intelligence or skills.
He believed that learning is a social process in which teachers, adults, and other
children form supportive "scaffolding" on which each child can gradually master
new skills. Vygotsky’s views have had a large impact on educators.
Because he had been so poor, material things were very important for him. He
believed that if a child has good learning materials (or tools, like a home, a
school, books, pens [or now, computers and internet]), the child will learn a lot
and very quickly.
Vygotsky believed that because different cultures have different learning tools
available, children learn similar skills using different methods. For example, in
NZ maths are taught at school, whereas in indigenous tribes of the Amazon,

11. children learn maths by selling and buying goods with their family at the local
markets.
Vygotsky also believed that because adults are more knowledgeable
(MoKO= more knowledgeable other), they should serve as scaffolds for
children’s learning. That is, the adult, for example, may help the child trace over
letters until the child is able to write them for himself (the same could be
applied to getting dressed, brushing your teeth, use cutlery, etc...). The help
from the adult is called scaffolding. Internalisation happens when the
child has learned the new skill.
Additionally, Vygotsky believed that the intellectual difference between a child
and an adult was like a road along which there are stages that he called zone
of (proximal) development (ZPD). The more the child learns, the closer the
child is to the next ZPD, and the closer the child is to the adult’s level of skill.
Perry Social-Cognitive Factors of Aggression
Aggressive children differ from less aggressive peers in terms of:
(a) Bandura’s self-efficacy beliefs (they believe that it is easy to perform
aggresive acts & difficult to inhibit aggressive impulses)
(b) beliefs about outcome of behaviours (they expect that aggression will be
followed by positive consequences including being treated better by others)
(c) regret or remorse (little remorse after committing aggressive act.
Critique: Some studies have linked aggression to a tendency to misinterpret the
positive actions of others as intentionally hostile.
ATTACHMENT theories of development

12. 1.BOWLBY’S Attachment Theory
Attachment is an emotional bond to another person.
Psychologist John Bowlby was the first attachment theorist, describing
attachment as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings” or
more simply, as a bond between child and caregiver.
Bowlby believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers
have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life. According to Bowlby,
attachment also serves to keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving
the child's chances of survival.
The central theme of attachment theory is that mothers who are available and
responsive to their infant's needs establish a sense of security in their children.
The infant knows that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a secure base
for the child to then explore the world.
There are 4 key components of attachment:
 Safe Haven: A place where the child can return to the caregiver for
comfort and soothing.
 Secure Base: The caregiver is the secure base from which the child can
go on to explore the world.
 Proximity Maintenance: The child strives to stay near the caregiver,
thus keeping himself safe.
 Separation Distress: When separated from the caregiver, the child will
become upset.
2.AINSWORTH'S "Strange Situation” attachment styles theory
In her 1970's research, psychologist Mary Ainsworth expanded upon Bowlby's
attachment theory. Her "Strange Situation" study revealed the profound effects
of attachment on behaviour. In the study, researchers observed children
between the ages of 12 and 18 months as they responded to a situation in which
they were briefly left alone and then reunited with their mothers (Ainsworth,
1978).
Based upon the responses the researchers observed, Ainsworth described 2
styles of attachment: secure and insecure. There are 3 insecure attachments:
avoidant and ambivalent.
Later, researchers Main and Solomon (1986) added a fourth attachment style
called disorganized-insecure attachment based upon their own research. A
number of studies since that time have supported Ainsworth's attachment styles

13. and have indicated that attachment styles also have an impact on behaviors
later in life.
Characteristics of each type of attachment style:
Characteristics of Secure Attachment:
These children exhibit distress when separated from caregivers and feel happy
and secure when their caregiver returns.
When frightened, securely attached children will seek comfort from caregivers.
Characteristics of Ambivalent Attachment
These children usually become very distressed when a parent leaves, because
s/he is often not available.
These children grow up to have a great sense of insecurity and dependence of
others (dependent personality disorder)
Characteristics of Avoidant Attachment
Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid caregivers. This type of
attachment strongly suggests abuse or neglect. These children learn to avoid
seeking help and may grow up to avoid other people (avoidant personality
disorder)
Harlow’s Attachment Theory:
Attachment happens because the child seeks “contact comfort”: Based on
studies with monkeys raised by artificial surrogate mothers (wire mesh vs.
terrycloth), monkeys got attached to the cloth mother because of the pleasant
sensation provided by the soft, cuddly parent. Harlow believed the same applied
to children.
MORAL theories of development (Kohlberg, Piaget)
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Although it has been questioned as to whether it applied equally to different
genders and different cultures, Kohlberg’s (1973) stages of moral development
is the most widely cited.

14. For Kohlberg, the development of morality undergoes three levels or stages:
1.Preconventional Level or Self-focused Morality (birth to 9)
For children in this stage, morality is defined as obeying rules and avoiding
negative consequences.
2. Conventional Level or Others-focused Morality (age 9 to 18)
For pre-teens and teenagers morality is doing what is expected of them by their
parents, teachers, etc.
3. Post-conventional Level or Higher-focused Morality (over 18)
For adults morality is culture (values and traditions of your society), law (abiding
by it) and circumstances (surrounding actions, like self-defence or stealing
because you are starving)
Critique to Kohlberg’s theory:
Gilligan's Feminist Theory: She points out that Kohlberg's research only
included males and she argues that his theory is not applicable to females whose
moral judgments are influenced less by justice and individual rights and more by
caring, compassion, and responsibility to others.
Her female moral theory has 3 stages or levels:
Level 1- orientation of individual survival (focus on what is best for oneself) -
Transition 1- from selfishness to responsibility (recognition that one is connected
to others)
Level 2- goodness as self-sacrifice (sacrifice of one's own desires for those of
others - Transition 2 - goodness to truth (focus on coordinating one's
responsibilities to self & others)
Level 3- morality of nonviolence (avoiding harm to oneself and to others is the
foremost consideration).
Jean Piaget’s Moral Development
3 stages:
1. pre-moral stage (prior to age 6): exhibit little concern for rules (eg:
cries when hungry regardless of situation or time of day)
2. heteronomous morality (morality of constraint), from 7-11 yrs. Children
believe that rules are set by authority figures and are unalterable. When
judging whether something is right or wrong, they consider whether a rule
has been violated.

15. 3. autonomous morality (morality of cooperation)- begins @ age
11....view rules as arbitrary and judge act based on inention of actor
rather than focus on consequences.