1. PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

2. CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHING
METHODS
•Traditional: old fashion way of teaching
•Time tested: methods that stood the test of
time and are still being user at present
•Progressive: these are newer and more
improved methods of teaching

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
METHOD
•It makes use of the principles of learning
•It utilizes the principles of “learning by doing”
•It provides for growth and development
•It liberates the learners
•It stimulates thinking and reasoning

4. VARIABLES THAT EFFECT TEACHING
METHOD
•Objectives
•Nature of students
•Nature of subject matter
•The teacher
•Technology
•School environment
•Teacher’s knowledge of group dynamics

5. B. MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
LESSON PLANNING
Learning Objectives: Their Importance and Construction
What is a Learning Objective?
• A learning objective is a statement of what students will be able
to do when they have completed instruction. A learning
objective has three major components:
A description of what the student will be able to do
The conditions under which the student will perform the task.
The criteria for evaluating student performance.

6. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A
GOAL AND A LEARNING OBJECTIVE?
• A GOAL is a statement of the intended general outcome of an
instructional unit or program. A goal statement describes a more
global learning outcome. A learning objective is a statement of
one of several specific performance, the achievement of which
contributes to the attainment of the goal. A single GOAL may
have many specific subordinate learning objectives:
For Example
• GOAL: The goal of the Learning Assessment course is to enable
the students to make reliable and accurate assessment of
learning.

7. • Learning Objective #1: Given a learning objective the student will
be able to develop an appropriate multiple-choice question to
measure student achievement of the objective.
• Learning Objective #2: Given a printout from an item analysis of a
multiple choice exam the student will be able to state the
accuracy of the test score.
• Learning Objective #3: Given the discrimination and difficulty
indices of an item the student will be able to determine if the item
contributes to the reliability of the exam.

8. WHY ARE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
IMPORTANT? LEARNING OBJECTIVES ARE
GUIDE TO:
• Selection of content.
• Development of an instructional strategy.
• Development and selection of instructional
materials.
• Construction of test and other instruments for
assessing and then evaluation student learning
outcomes.

9. HOW DO YOU WRITE A LEARNING
OBJECTIVE? IN WRITING A LEARNING
OBJECTIVE:
•Focus on student Performance not teacher
performance.
•Focus on product – not process.
•Focus on terminal behavior – not subject
matter.
•Include only one general learning outcome in
each objective.

10. A LEARNING OBJECTIVE - IS A STATEMENT DESCRIBING A COMPETENCY OR
PERFORMANCE CAPABILITY TO BE ACQUIRED BY THE LEARNER.
Behavior – First, an objective must describe the competency to be learned in
performance terms. The choice of a verb is all-important here. Such frequently used
terms as know, understand, grasp, and appreciate do not meet this requirement. If the
verb used in stating an objective identifies an observable student behavior, then the
basis for a clear statement is established. In addition, the type or level of learning must
be identified.
Criterion – Second, an objective should make clear how well a learner must
perform to be judged adequate. This can be done with a statement indicating a
degree of accuracy, a quantity or proportion of correct responses or the like.

11. A LEARNING OBJECTIVE - IS A STATEMENT DESCRIBING A COMPETENCY OR
PERFORMANCE CAPABILITY TO BE ACQUIRED BY THE LEARNER.
Conditions –Third, an objective should describe the condition under which the
learner will be expected to perform in the situation. What tools, references, or other
aids will be provided or denied should be made clear. Sometimes, one or even two of
these elements will be easily implied by a simple statement. Other times, however, it
may be necessary to clearly specify in detail each element of the objective. The
following is an example of a completed learning objective:
OBJECTIVE: “Given a set of data the students will be able to compute the standard
deviation.”
Condition: Given a set of data.
Behavior: the student will be able to compute the standard deviation.
Criterion: (implied) the number computed will be corrected.

12. CHECKLIST FOR WRITING A SPECIFIC
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE:
1. Begin each statement of a specific learning outcome with a
verb that specifies definite, observable behavior.
2. Make sure that each statement meets all three of the criteria for
a good learning objective: observable behavior, the conditions
under which the student will be expected to perform, and the
criteria to be used for evaluation of the student’s performance.
3. Be sure to include complex objectives (appreciation, problem-
solving, etc.) when they are appropriate.

13. TABLE OF PROCESS ORIENTED LEARNER
BEHAVIOR
KNOWLEDGE
recall, identify, recognize, acquire, distinguish
COMPREHENSION
translate, extrapolate, convert, interpret, abstract, transform
APPLICATION
apply, sequence, carry out, solve, prepare, operate, generalize, plan, repair, explain
ANALYSIS
analyze, estimate, compare, observe, detect, classify, discover, discriminate, identify, explore, distinguish,
catalog, investigate, breakdown, order, recognize, determine, outside
SYNTHESIS
write, plan, integrate, formulate, propose, specify, produce, organize, theorize, design, build, systematize
EVALUATION
evaluate, verify, assess, test, judge, rank, measure, appraise, select, check

14. DOMAINS OF LEARNING
Learning is a psychology process. Thus, the assessment of learning of
necessity, requires the assessment of various psychological processes. In
developing assessment tools (test) it is important that we first have an
understanding of these psychological processes and how to go about
measuring them. Although there are many psychological models for the
process of learning. For this workbook we have chosen Benjamin
Bloom’s taxonomy as a useful tool. In Bloom’s taxonomy there are three
fundamental learning domains: Cognitive, Psychomotor and Affective.

15. • Affective learning of beliefs, attitudes and values.
• Psychomotor learning of physical movements such as ballet
steps, how to pitch a curve ball, how to drill out a cavity in a
motor, etc.
• Cognitive learning of information and the processes of
dealing with that information.

16. THERE ARE SIX LEVELS OF COGNITIVE
LEARNING AS SPECIFIED BY BLOOM:
• Basic Knowledge
• Comprehension
• Application
• Analysis
• Synthesis
• Evaluation

17. Generally it can be said that the first category, Knowledge, is
information-oriented as it stresses the ability to recall existing
knowledge. The other five categories can be termed
“Process Oriented” because they entail more sophisticated
learner behavior and competencies that require increasing
degrees of understanding. The following are brief definitions
of these six levels with a suggestion as to how to assess this
level of learning.

18. • Basic Knowledge: To recall and memorize – assess by direct questions.
The object is to test the student’s ability to recall facts, to identify and
repeat the information provided.
• Comprehension: To translate from one form to another – Assess by
having students 1) restate material in their own words, 2) reorder or
extrapolate ideas, predict or estimate. Assessments must provide
evidence that the students have some understanding or
comprehension of what they are saying.
• Application: To apply or use information in a new situation – Assess by
presenting students with unique situation (i.e. one not identical to that
used during instruction) and have them apply their knowledge to
solve the problem or execute the proper procedure.

19. • Analysis: To examine a concept and break it down into its parts –
Assess by presenting students with a unique situation of the same type
but not identical to that used during instruction, and have them
analyze the situation and describe the appropriate procedure of
solution to the problem.
• Synthesis: To put together in a unique or novel way to solve a problem
– Assess by presenting students with a unique situation NOT of the
same type used during instruction, and have them solve a problem by
selecting and using appropriate information.
• Evaluation: To make quantitative or qualitative judgment using
standards of appraisal – Assess by presenting the students with a
situation which includes both a problem and a solution to the problem
and have them justify or critique the solution.

20. LEVELS OF AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVES
• Krathwohl’s affective domain taxonomy is perhaps the best known
of any of the affective taxonomies “The taxonomy is ordered
according to the principle of internalization.
• Internalization refers to the process whereby a person’s affect toward
an object passes from a general awareness level to a point where the
affect is ‘internalized’ and consistently guides or controls the behavior.

21. • Receiving is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas,
materials, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them example
include: to differentiate, to accept to listen (for), to respond to.
• Responding is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or
phenomena involved by actively responding to them. Example are: to
comply with, to follow, to commend, to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to
acclaim.
• Valuing is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas,
materials, or phenomena. Examples include: to increase measured
proficiency in, to relinquish, to subsidize, to support, to debate.
• Organization is to relate value to those already held and bring into a
harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. Examples are: to discuss, to
theorize, to formulate, to balance, to examine.
• Characterization by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance
with the values he or she has internalized. Example include: to revise, to
require, to be rated high in the value, to avoid, to resist, to manage, to
resolve.

22. LEVELS OF PSYCHOMOTOR
OBJECTIVES
• Observing – active mental attending of a physical event.
• Imitating – attempted copying of a physical behavior.
• Practicing – trying a specific physical activity over and over.
• Adapting – fine tuning. Making minor adjustments in the
physical activity in order to perfect it.

23. • The psychomotor domain refer to the use of basic motor
skills, coordination, and physical movement. Bloom’s
research group did not develop in–depth categories of this
domain, claiming lack of experience in teaching these skills.
However, Simpson (1972) developed seven psychomotor
categories to support Bloom’s domain. These physical
behaviors are learned through repetitive practice. A
learner’s ability to perform these skills is based on precision,
speed, distance, and technique.

24. DIRECT INSTRUCTION/LECTURE
Advantages
• Teacher controlled
• Many objectives can be mastered in a short amount of time
• Lends to valid evaluations
Disadvantages
• Teacher controlled
• Students involvement is limited to the teacher
• Depends in part to role learning (repetition from memory, often without meaning)
When to use?
• When the objectives indicate effectiveness
• When the teacher determines that it is the best use of time & effort

25. SIX STEPS IN DIRECT INSTRUCTION
1. Review previously learned material
• a short review before/with the new lesson’s interest approach
• check & grade previous homework
• put problems on the board (can be part of bell work)
• re-teach if necessary
2. State objectives for the lesson
• Students should know what is to be taught
-Stated clearly
-Written on the board
-Handed out
• Follow the objectives
• Use them to develop evaluations

26. 3. Present new materials
• Your teaching depends on your analysis and preparation
• Organizing content
• From general to specific
• From lower level objectives to higher
• From previous information to new material
Lectures
• Be aware of attention spans
• Be aware of number of major points made
• Be repetitious
• Review and summarize
• Demonstration
• Learning activity, experiment, demonstration
• WOW em’!
• Allow students to practice immediately
4. Guided practice with corrective feedback
• Guided and independent practice
• Teacher controls & monitors guided
• Teacher evaluated & corrects independent
• Question should be prepared in advance

27. 5. Assign independent practice with corrective feedback
• Homework
• A formative step … not a summative step
• Worksheets
6. Review periodically with corrective feedback if necessary
• Check homework promptly
• Base new instruction on result
• Re-teach if necessary

28. OTHER TEACHING TECHNIQUES
BRAINSTORMING
Situations for use:
• Generate ideas (quantity is more important than quality)
• Students have some level experience
Planning required:
• Formulate the question
• Plan for recording ideas
Brainstorming steps
• Pose question to class
• Generate ideas with group
• Accept all ideas (do not criticize)
• Go back to summarize
• Discard “unacceptable” or unworkable ideas
• Determine the best solution(s)

29. SUPERVISED STUDY
• Common technique used in problem solving instruction, but certainly
not the only technique appropriate for problem solving instruction.
• Also a major technique used in competency-based education
programs.
• Often misused technique. A really bad form of this technique is: Read
the chapter in the textbook and answer the question at the end of the
chapter.
• Would be classified as an individualized instruction technique.

30. SITUATIONS APPROPRIATE FOR USE
• Discovery or inquiry learning is desired
• Access to good reference materials (textbooks, extension
publications, web resources, industry publications, etc.)
• Students may need to “look up” information
• May be alternative answers that are acceptable
• Many structured lab activities are actually a form of supervised study

31. STRENGTHS
• Provides skills in learning that are useful throughout students’ lives. They
need to know how to locate and analyze information.
• Recall is enhanced when student have to “look up” information,
rather than being lectured to.
• Students have to decide what information is important and related to
the question posed.
• Opportunity for students to develop writing and analytical skills.

32. WEAKNESSES:
• Easy for students to get off-task
• Students may interpret questions differently and locate incorrect
information (practicing error).
• Unmotivated students will do the absolute minimum.
• Students tend to copy information from sources rather than analyze
and synthesize information
• Requires more time than lecture
• Relies on students being able to read and comprehend information at
the appropriate level.

33. PROCEDURES IN CONDUCTING
SUPERVISED STUDY:
• Teacher develops a list of study questions for students to answer.
• Resources and reference materials are located or suggested to students as
possible sources of answers.
• Students are given time in class to find answers to the questions and to
record the answers in their notes.
• Note: Due to time constraints, teachers may want to assign different
questions to specific students, so that every student is not looking for the
same information
• Summary consists of discussing the correct answers to the question with the
entire class.
• Note: Teachers must be careful to emphasize that incorrect answers must be
connected

34. ROLE OF THE TEACHER
• Develop a list of study questions that focus on the objectives of the lesson
• Develop the anticipated answers to the questions - it is important that he
teacher have a firm idea of what are correct or incorrect answers.
• Establish time frame for completing the activity. Students need to feel a
sense of urgency, so don’t give them more time than you think they will
need.
• Supervise during this activity, NOT A TIME TO GRADE PAPERS, MAKE PHONE
CALLS, PLAN FOR THE NEXT LESSON, OR LOCATE THE ANSWERS TO THE
QUESTIONS IN THIS LESSON!
• Assist student in locating information, but not find it for them.
• Keep students on task and eliminate distractions.
• Plan for reporting of answers

35. SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION
Also Called:
• Buzz Groups
• Huddle Groups
• Phillips 66
• 6 people per group
• 6 ideas to be generated
• 6 minutes
Advantages
• Increased participation
• Good for generating ideas
• Cooperative activity (students learn from each other)
•

36. Planning Required
• Clearly form the question of topic
• Develop a plan for grouping the students
• Plan for reporting
• Summarize the activity (what they should have learned)
Conducting Small Group Discussion
• Write question or topic on board or handout
• Give specific instructions on how the group will operate
• Establish the limits
• Circulate among the groups to help keep them on task (Not as participant!)
• Give warning near end of time allocated
• Reports: Rotate among the groups for answers

37. GAMES
Situations for use:
• Motivate students
• Reviews
• Check for understanding
Strengths:
• Active learning technique
• Appeals to competitive students
• High interest level
Planning Required
• Game must be developed by teacher
• Rules must be established. Try to anticipate all potential situations that might occur. You do not want the effectiveness of the activity to be destroyed by
arguments over rules.
• Develop a plan for determining teams
• Developing plan for keeping score
• Determine rewards-make them appropriate (usually very minor in nature)
Types: Games may take a variety of forms, but most often they are modeled after:
• TV game shows
• Sports
• Home board games

38. FIELD TRIPS AND RESOURCES PERSONS
Situations for use:
• First hand experiences are needed
• Need expertise
Planning Needed:
• Objective
• Trial run/visit
• Special considerations (safety, grouping, etc.)
• Summarize (don’t give up responsibility!). It is critical to know what the students have learned from the activity.
Tips:
• Provide advance organizers (report forms, fact sheets)
• “plant” questions among students
• Assign students to begin the questions
With-it-ness – The teachers knows what is going on in the classroom at all times. Seemingly, the teacher has eyes in the back of
his/her head. This is not only when the teacher is in small group setting, but when he/she is presenting a topic or students are
working as individuals. It can be as simple as looking around the room frequently or making sure your back is never turned to
the class. It is not necessary to know what the teacher knows is going on - it is what the students believe she knows

39. OTHER HELPFUL INFO ON STUDENT CONTROL
• The Hawthorne affect is a phenomenon in industrial psychology first
observed in the 1920s that refers to improvements in productivity or quality
resulting from the mere fact that workers were being studied or observed.
• Pygmalion effect (or Rosenthal effect) which refers to situations in which
students performed better than other students simply because they were
expected to do so.

40. • John Henry Effect has also been identified: an experiment my spur competition
between groups, precisely because they are conscious of being part of an
experiment. The term “halo effect” describes what happens when a scientific
observation is influenced by the observer’s perceptions of the individual, procedure,
or service that is under observation. The observer’s prejudices, recollections of
previous observations, and knowledge about prior observations or findings can all
affect objectivity and must be guarded against.
• JACOB KOUNIN All of this came about from an incident that happened while he was
teaching a class in Metal Hygiene. A student in the back of the class was reading
newspaper, the newspaper being opened fully in front of the student so that he
couldn’t see the teacher. Kounin asked the student to put the paper away and pay
attention. Once the student complied, Kounin realized that other students who were
engaging in non-appropriate behaviors (whispering, passing notes) stopped and
began to pay attention to the lecture. This gave him an interest in understanding
classroom discipline on not only the student being disciplined, but also the other
students in the classroom. This is the effect that became known as the “Ripple
Effect”

41. D. EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUE
The Art of Questioning
• Teachers ask sometimes over a hundred questions in a class session to encourage
student thinking. Let’s examine some aspects of the art of questioning, including:
types of questions wait time, and questioning and creativity.
Categories of Questions
There are many systems that teachers use to classify questions. Upon close
observation in most systems questions are typically classified into two categories.
Various terms are used to describe these two categories (Figure 1) The binary
approach is useful because two categories are more manageable for a beginning
teacher to learn to implement than the typical approach of using systems with six
categories.

42. FIGURE 1. CATEGORIES OF QUESTIONS
Category 1 Category 2
• Factual Higher cognitive
• Closed Open
• Convergent Divergent
• Lowe level Higher level
• Low order High order
• Low inquiry High Inquiry

43. Low inquiry questions. These questions focus on previously learned
knowledge in order to answer question posed by the teacher which require
the students to perform ONE of the following tasks:
1. Elicit the meaning of a term
2. Represent something by a word or a phase
3. Supply an example of something
4. Make statements of issues, steps in a procedure, rules, conclusions, ideas
and beliefs that have previously been made.
5. Supply a summary or a review that was previously said or provided
6. Provide a specific, predictable answer to a question.

44. High inquiry questions. These question focus on previously learned knowledge in
order to answer questions posed by the teacher which require the students to perform
ONE of the following tasks:
• Perform an abstract operation, usually of mathematical nature, such as multiplying,
substituting, or simplifying.
• Rate some entry as to its value, dependability, importance, or sufficiency with a
defense of the rating.
• Find similarities or differences in the qualities of two or more entities utilizing criteria
defined by the student.
• Make a prediction that is the result of some stated condition, state, operation,
object or substance.
• Make inference to account for the occurrence of something (how or why it
occurred).

45. • Wait Time. Knowledge of the types of questions and their predicted effect on
student thinking is important to know. However, researchers have found that
there are other factors associated with questioning that can enhance critical
and creative thinking. One of the purposes of questioning is to enhance and
increase verbal behavior of students.

46. BASIC APPROACHES IN EARLY
CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
• Montessori Approach: Based on the philosophy of Maria Montessori, this approach
believes that the child will reach his/her maximum potentials in a “prepared”
environment. This approach make use of “autodidactic” materials or self-correcting
materials. The system encourages the children to take care of their own belongings like
preparing their own snacks, cleaning toys and materials after using etc. the teacher of
oftentimes called “directress” clinically observes the child as he/she progresses with
activities.
• Waldorf Approach: Rudolf Steiner is the founder of Waldorf Approach. Creation of
“dependable routine” is the main concept of Waldorf. Daily schedule and weekly
schedule follow a certain rhythm. Students stays with the teacher for up to 8 years
making them bond and trust as they relate with their teachers. The approach foster
home-like atmosphere and environment focusing on creative learning (play, drama,
story reading, cooking etc.) The child total development (emotional, physical and
intellectual) is therefore enhanced.

47. • Reggio Emilia Approach: The people of Reggio Emilia in Italy made a significant
development in their preschools back in 1940’s wherein the curriculum consisted of activities
that shows the interest of the students. The “projects” of the students reflects the students’
interest and the teacher simply guide them in the realization of their pursuits. Children learn
by their mistakes and all their projects are documented by photos and records using the
students’ own words thus allowing the parents and the teachers see the students’ progress.
• High/Scope Approach: Dr. David Weikart, an educator from Michigan started the
High/Scope Approach emphasizing on the academic skill development rather than social
and emotional development. Collaboration between the teacher and students are
encouraged in making decision on materials and even activities. The program was initially
focused on children in the urban areas who are considered to be at risk.
• Bank Street Approach: Based on the early childhood program of Bank Street College of
Education in New York, the program looked at the children as active learners and the world
is around them is the best teaching tool. The lesson is Bank Street approach is focused on
social sciences (history, geography, anthropology) and art lesson are integrated in
curriculum, Students are encouraged to be creative and can work alone and in group
Teacher are trained in guiding the students.