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2. 1. Anatomical hints:
- Functions: Skin is not only a passive protective barrier, but a complex organ with many functions:
● Protects deeper tissues from injury, drying and invasion of microorganisms (through production of protective keratin layer and presence of immune cells like
Langerhans cells and T lymphocytes).
● Keratinocytes are sites for the biosynthesis of soluble molecules (cytokines) that regulate adjacent epidermal cells as well as cells in the dermis.
● Has important role in thermoregulation (through sweat glands).
● Absorbs ultraviolet light (by melanin pigments).
● Has cosmetic function
● Metabolizes vitamin D
● Contains peripheral endings of sensory nerves (warn of potentially damaging physical factors in the environment).
- Histology: Skin is composed of three main components (epidermis & skin adnexa, melanocytic system, and dermis & subcutis).
Epidermis
● Epidermis is outer layer of skin
● Epidermis forms outer layer of keratin that is protective and waterproof.
● Epidermis is composed of stratified squamous epithelium (keratinocytes) in 4 layers: inner basal, squamous, granular and outer cornified.
● Other cells present include melanocytes, Langerhans’ cells and Merkel cells.
● Skin is thicker in palms and soles, which contain epidermal ridges that prevent slipping and form fingerprints and footprints.
● Keratinization takes 30-45 days; alterations in pattern and speed cause dermatoses, hyperkeratosis or parakeratosis.
● Dermoepidermal junction: thrown into undulating folds of interlocking ridges of epidermis (rete ridges) and dermal papillae.
Squamous layer Cornified layer
Basal layer Granular layer
or Prickle layer Stratum lucidum or Horny layer
or Stratum basale or Stratum granulosum
or Stratum spinosum or Stratum corneum
- Mitotically active, produces - Has several layers of cells, larger than - 1 to 3 layers of flattened - Present only in soles - Basket weave
other keratinocytes. basal layer, which become flat and cells with intensely and palms. pattern of multiple
- Separated from dermis by eosinophilic as they approach the basophilic keratohyaline - Located between layers of polyhedral
continuous basal membrane surface (due to an increase in keratin granules. granular and cornified cells without nuclei.
(keratinocytes are attached to and reduction in ribosomes). - These granules contain layer. - Thicker and more
this membrane by hemi- - May have clear vacuolated cytoplasm. precursors of filaggrin - Consist of several compact in acral
desmosomes). - Cells are attached to each other by protein, which causes layers of dead cells, region (peripheral
- Also contains melanocytes. fine spiny bridges with central dot-like aggregation of keratin appear as homogenous body-limbs, fingers,
desmosomes (Bizzozero’s nodule). filaments. eosinophilic zone. ears).
- Loss of these spiny bridges causes
acantholysis.

3. Langerhans cells Merkel cells Melanocytes
- Bone marrow derived dendritic cells - Mechanoreceptors concentrated in skin of digits, - Neural crest origin.
that present antigens to T cells. finger pads, palms, dorsum of feet, lips, hard palate. - Seen in basal epidermis, hair follicles, most squamous
- Scattered in upper squamous layer - Difficult to see with H&E or special stains. mucous membranes, leptomeninges.
and in the dermis, but difficult to see - contain neurosecretory granules in its cytoplasm - Produce melanin from tyrosine, transfer it (via cytoplasmic
on H&E. (positive for NSE). processes) to adjacent epithelial cells to protect against
ultraviolet rays.
- Racial skin color is due to amount of melanin in
keratinocytes, not number of melanocytes.
- Positive for: Fontana-Masson, tyrosinase, S100, MelanA,
HMB45.
- Negative for: GFAP, neurofilament.
Desmosomes (macula adherens) Hemidesmosomes
- Definition: - Definition:
They are localized spot-like adhesions randomly arranged on the lateral sides Situated at the undersurface of basal keratinocytes, linking them to basement
of plasma membranes. They are specialized for cell-to-cell adhesions and membrane.
helpful to resist shearing forces. - Structure:
- Structure: (1) The hemidesmosome represent half desmosome.
(1) Desmosomes are molecular complexes of cell adhesion proteins (2) The hemidesmosome might consist of two proteins: the BPAg1 protein
(desmoglein and desmocollin), and linking proteins that attach the cell (located at the intracellular side of the hemidesmosome, bind to keratin
surface adhesion proteins to intracellular keratin cytoskeletal filaments. intermediate filaments), and the BPAg2 protein (transmembranous protein
(2) Desmoglein and desmocollin (members of the cadherin family) that contains an intracellular domain bonded to BPAg1, a transmembranous
are transmembrane proteins that bridge the space between segment, and an extracellular domain that projects into the lamina lucida of
adjacent epithelial cells by way of homophilic binding of their extracellular basement membrane).
domains to other desmogleins and desmocollins on the adjacent cell. (4) Other proteins that either form or stabilize hemidesmosomes are also
(3) On the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane, there are two dense present. For example intracellular plectin protein (that binds to keratin
structures (outer and inner dense Plaques), spanned by filaments) is bonded to a single-pass transmembrane adhesion molecule
the Desmoplakin protein. The Outer Dense Plaque is where the cytoplasmic (α6β4 integrin). The integrin might then attach to one of many multi-adhesive
domains of the cadherins attach to desmoplakin (via plakoglobin and proteins such as laminin & collageb VII (anchoring filaments & fibrils), that
plakophillin). The Inner Dense Plaque is where desmoplakin attaches to resident within the basement membrane.
intracellular keratin cytoskeletal filaments.

4. Skin Adnexae
Hair Sebaceous glands Sweat glands
- Most of the skin is haired although the hair in - Lobulated structures which develop as a lateral - Sweat glands are either eccrine (regulate body
most areas is short, fine and only lightly pigmented. protrusion from the outer root sheath of hair temperature), apocrine or mixed.
This type of hair is called vellus hair. follicles. Eccrine Apocrine
- Truly hairless parts are: the palms and soles, the - Can also be found in some of the areas where no - Tubular glands with - Concentrated in
distal phalanges and sides of fingers and toes, and hair is present (e.g. lips, oral surfaces of the cheeks secretory and axilla, groin and
parts of the external genitalia. and external genitalia). excretory portions. perineum; also in face,
- The free part of each hair is called the shaft. The - The secretory part (alveoli) have outer basal cells - Secretory coil is in external auditory
root of each hair is anchored in a tubular that are mitotically active, move inward and deep dermis or meatus, eyelid and
invagination of the epidermis (the hair follicle), accumulate intracytoplasmic lipid droplets, causing subcutis, has inner areola.
which extends down into the dermis and, usually, a multivacuolation and multiple indentations of secretory and outer - Have secretory and
short distance into the hypodermis. nuclei myoepithelial cells. excretory components
- Excretory ducts of these glands empty into - Excretory portion - The secretory portion
- Hair follicles form hair via cyclic process of (a)
infundibulum of hair follicle. open directly onto skin has an outer
anagen or growing phase, (b) catagen or involuting
phase and (c) telogen or resting phase. - The lipid secretion of the sebaceous glands has no surface, and has discontinuous layer of
softening effect on the skin, and it has only very dermal (straight) and myoepithelial cells and
- The deepest end of the hair follicle forms an
limited antibacterial and antifungal activity. Its intraepidermal (spiral, an inner secretory
enlargement, called the bulb. Matrix (regenerative)
importance in humans is unclear. Clinically the also called cells.
cells are cells of the bulb that line the dermal
sebaceous glands are important in that they are acrosyringium) - The excretory duct of
papillae, they are mitotically active, give rise to hair
liable to infections (e.g. with the development of portions. apocrine sweat glands
shaft and inner root sheath.
acne). does not open directly
- Inner root sheath is surrounded by layer of large
clear cells called outer root sheath. onto the skin surface,
but into the upper part
- Outer root sheath cells undergo abrupt of the hair follicle.
keratinization without a granular layer, at level of
isthmus (mid hair follicle, extends from arrector pili - Pilosebaceous unit: complex of hair follicle,
insertion to sebaceous duct), this is called sebaceous gland, erector pili muscle, and if present,
trichilemmal keratinization. apocrine sweat glands.
- Outer root sheath cells undergo usual
keratinization (as epidermis) at level of
infundibulum (upper hair follicle).
Dermis & Subcutis
● Contains collagen and elastic fibers within ground substance composed of mucopolysaccharides and mucoproteins.
● Also contains adnexa, nerves, blood vessels, few fibroblasts, mast cells, macrophages, lymphocytes and dermal dendrocytes.
● Divided into superficial papillary dermis and deeper reticular dermis (papillary dermis has thin and delicate collagen fibers compared to thicker fibers in
reticular dermis).
● Dermis has varying degrees of thickness - thicker on back

5. ● Acral skin has Sucquet-Hoyel canals – specialized arteriovenous anastomoses, surrounded by glomus cells
● Glomus cells are modified smooth muscle cells that are round with clear cytoplasm and well defined cytoplasmic borders
● Papillary dermis of palms and soles contains Wagner-Meissner corpuscles with a tactile function
● Deep dermis and subcutis of weight bearing areas contain Pacinian corpuscles, sensitive to pressure
● Subcutis also called subcutaneous; contains lobules of mature adipose tissue and thin connective tissue septa
2. Common Terms:
Pathological terms Clinical terms
loss of intercellular connections (desmosomes) between Circumscribed lesion, 5 mm or smaller in diameter,
Macule
keratinocytes; occurs in pemphigus vulgaris and related characterized by flatness and distinguished by coloration
Acantholysis
disorders; causes change in cell shape from Patch flat discoloration > 5 mm
polygonal to round
Papule elevated and solid area, 5 mm or less
alteration of granular layer with perinuclear clear
Plaque elevated flat topped area, usually > 5 mm
spaces, swollen and irregular keratohyalin granules,
Epidermolysis Nodule solid, deeply extending lesion > 5 mm
increased thickness of granular layer; different from
acantholysis Pustule Discrete, pus-filled, raised lesion
thickening of epidermis (squamous layer); rete ridges Blister common term for vesicle or bullae
Acanthosis
usually extend deeper into dermis Vesicle fluid filed area, 5 mm or less
outward overgrowth of epidermis with elongation of fluid filled area > 5 mm; either intraepidermal or
Papillomatosis
dermal papillae subepidermal; intraepidermal bullae are due to spongiosis
Bullae
abnormal, premature keratinization of keratinocytes or acantholysis; subepidermal bullae are due to extensive
Dyskeratosis below granular cell layer; often have brightly papillary dermal edema
eosinophilic cytoplasm itchy, transient, elevated area with variable blanching and
Wheal
thickened cornified layer, often with prominent erythema, due to dermal edema
Hyperkeratosis
granular layer hair follicle infundibulum is dilated and plugged with
Comedo
cells of cornified layer retain their nuclei, often less keratin and lipids
Parakeratosis prominent or absent granular layer; normal for mucous Horn conical mass of cornifed cells
membranes
dry, horny, platelike excrescence usually due to imperfect
linear pattern of melanocytic proliferation within Scale
Lentiginous cornification
epidermal basal cell layer
thick, rough skin with prominent skin markings usually due
destruction of basal keratinocytes, causing remodeling Lichenification
Lichenoid to repeated rubbing
of basement membrane zone; also bandlike
interface change Excoriation deep linear scratch, often self-induced
lymphocytic infiltrate
Onycholysis Separation of nail plate from nail bed
Exocytosis Infiltration of the epidermis by inflammatory cells
Leukocytoclasis karyorrhexis and destruction of neutrophils; occurs with

6. neutrophilic vasculitis (also called leukocytoclastic
vasculitis)
Hydropic Intracellular edema of keratinocytes, often seen in viral
degeneration infections
intraepidermal edema, causing splaying apart of
Spongiosis keratinocytes in stratum spinosum (resembling a
sponge), vesicles due to shearing of desmosomes
discontinuity of skin causing partial loss of epidermis
Erosion
(compare to ulceration)
discontinuity of skin causing complete loss of epidermis
Ulceration
and possible loss of dermis
3. Infections: Many disorders (such as herpes simplex and herpes zoster, deep fungal infections, TB, Leprosy, Syphilis, and parasitic infestations) are
discussed in General Pathology
- Etiology:
(1) Organism: human papilloma viruses (HPV), a type of papova virus.
(2) Mode of transmission: direct contact (including sexual) or auto-inoculation.
- Clinical:
(1) Common in children and young adults, however any age may be affected.
(2) Usually self-limited, regressing spontaneously within 6 months to 2 years.
(3) Confirm diagnosis by PCR: detect HPV DNA.
- M/P:
(1) Epidermal acanthosis with hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, and (not in verruca plana) papillomatosis.
Warts
(2) Infected cells show cytoplasmic vacuolization (koilocytosis), with raisinoid nuclei.
(Verrucae)
(3) These cells may also demonstrate prominent keratohyaline granules (eosinophilic intracytoplasmic keratin aggregates) as a result of
viral cytopathic effects (these changes may be lost in old lesions).
(4) Nuclear viral inclusion bodies may be seen.
- Types:
based largely on appearance, location and HPV subtype
Verruca vulgaris Verruca plana Verruca plantaris/palmaris
- Most common type of warts. - Usually due to HPV10. - Occur on the soles and palms, respectively.
- Usually due to HPV2. - Most common on the face - Appear as rough, scaly lesions may reach 1 to 2 cm in
- Most frequently on the hands or the dorsal surfaces of the diameter.

7. (particularly on the dorsal surfaces hands.
and periungual areas). - Appear as flat, smooth, tan
- Appear as white to tan, elevated, papules.
small papules with a rough surface. - M/P: Acanthosis but no
- M/P: Striking papillomatosis & papillomatosis.
hyperkeratosis with pointed mounds
resembling church spires.
Condyloma acuminatum
Epidermodysplasia verruciformis
(venereal warts)
- Usually due to HPV6 and HPV11. - Usually HPV 5 or 8.
- occurs on the penis, female genitalia, urethra, perianal areas, and - Often appears before age 10 years or after renal
rectum. transplantation.
- Appear as soft, tan, cauliflower-like masses that occasionally - Appear as multiple flat warts on face or distal extremities,
reach many centimeters in diameter. often disseminated throughout the body.
- 30-50% progress to invasive squamous cell carcinoma, mean
age 30 years.
- M/P: mild to moderate acanthosis and hyperkeratosis.
Epidermis shows large keratinocytes with blue-green cytoplasm
and perinuclear pallor. Dysplasia & pleomorphism may be seen.
Note: HPV type 16 has also been associated with squamous cell carcinoma and carcinoma in situ of the genitalia (Bowen’s disease).
- Etiology:
(1) Organism: Poxvirus.
(2) Mode of transmission: Direct contact (including sexual).
- Clinical:
(1) Common in children and young adults.
(2) Multiple lesions may occur on the skin and mucous membranes, especially the trunk and anogenital areas.
Molluscum
Contagiosum (3) Lesions are firm, small, often pruritic, pink - tan papules, with central umbilication contains white curd-like material.
(4) Confirm diagnosis: smearing this material onto a glass slide and staining with Giemsa reagent often shows diagnostic molluscum
bodies.
- M/P:
(1) Lobulated endophytic epidermal hyperplasia (that produces a circumscribed intradermal pseudotumor).
(2) The diagnostically specific structure is the molluscum bodies: large, ellipsoid, homogeneous, cytoplasmic inclusions in cells of the
stratum granulosum and the stratum corneum that displace nuclei and contain viral particles.
Impetigo - Etiology:

8. (1) Organism: due to Staphylococcus (mostly) or streptococcus infection.
(2) Mode of transmission: The bacteria gain access into the skin at the site of an abrasion, such as might occur from a scratch or a cut or
as a result of picking the face with dirty finger nails.
(3) Pathogenesis:
Bacterial species in the epidermis evoke an innate immune response that tends to be destructive within the epidermis leading to
local serous exudate with formation of a scale crust (scab).
Blister formation in impetigo is related to bacterial production of a toxin that specifically cleaves desmoglein 1, the protein
responsible for cell-to-cell adhesion within the uppermost epidermal layers.
Because there is virtually no involvement of the dermis, once the bacteria are eliminated the lesions heal without scarring.
- Types:
Impetigo contagiosa Impetigo bullosa
- Clinical: - Clinical:
(1) Highly contagious and is frequently seen in otherwise healthy (1) Highly contagious, seen mainly in infants and children.
children as well as occasionally in adults in poor health. (2) Usually seen on face, trunk, buttock, perineum or extremities.
(2) Usually involves exposed skin (particularly that of the face, (3) Vesicles rapidly enlarge and become flaccid transparent bullae
neck and hands). up to 5 cm, containing clear yellow to dark yellow / turbid fluid.
(3) It presents as an erythematous macule, but multiple small (4) May be associated with impetigo contagiosa.
pustules rapidly supervene.
(4) As pustules break, shallow erosions form, covered with drying
serum, giving the characteristic clinical appearance of honey-
colored crust.
(5) May be associated with impetigo bullosa.
-M/P: - M/P:
(1) Accumulation of neutrophils beneath the stratum corneum, (1) Accumulation of fluid and neutrophils beneath the stratum
often producing a subcorneal pustule. corneum, with variable acantholysis.
(2) Rupture of pustules results in superficial layering of serum, (2) Stains: bacterial clusters are evident with Gram stain.
neutrophils, and cellular debris to form the characteristic crust. (3) Differential diagnosis: herpes simplex, burns, and other
(3) Stains: Gram-positive cocci are usually easily found in the blistering disorders.
surface crust.
- Etiology:
(1) Organism: Dermatophytes (Trichophyton, Microsporum and Epidermophyton).
Tinea
(2) Mode of transmission: direct contact.
(Dermatophytoses)
- M/P:
(1) Fungal spores, hyphae and neutrophils usually are present in stratum corneum, nails or hair shafts (best stained with PAS).

9. (2) Variable intercellular epidermal edema, dermal inflammation.
- Types:
Tinea capitis Tinea barbae Tinea corporis
- Infection causing hairless patches of skin in - Infection of beard area of adult - Infection of body, showing erythematous
scalp, with mild erythema, crust formation, men round plaques with an elevated scaling border
and scaling. (ringworm).
- Usually in children, rarely seen in infants and - Affect any age.
adults. - Predisposing factors include excessive heat
- Kerion: superimposed bacterial folliculitis on and humidity, and chronic dermatophytosis of
tinea of scalp. the feet or nails.
Tinea cruris Tinea pedis Onychomycosis
- Infection of inguinal area (upper inner thigh) - Infection of the web spaces of - Infection of the nails, producing
of obese men. feet (athlete’s foot), causing diffuse discoloration, thickening, and deformity of the
- Predisposing factors include warm weather, erythema and scaling. nail plate.
friction, and maceration.
- Etiology:
(1) Organism: Malassezia furfur (yeast rather than a dermatophyte).
(2) Mode of transmission: contact.
- Clinical:
Tinea Versicolor
Usually occurs on the upper trunk, appear as groups of macules of all sizes, lighter or darker than surrounding skin, with a fine peripheral
scale.
- M/P:
Yeast spores and pseudohyphae within stratum corneum (spaghetti and meatballs on PAS).
4. Ichthyosis:
- Definition:
Disorder of epidermal maturation, in which skin resembles fish scales.
- Pathogenesis:
Excessive keratin buildup due to a desquamation defect, leading to retention of abnormally formed scale - Types:
Congenital Ichthyosiform
Ichthyosis Vulgaris Lamellar Ichthyosis X-Linked Ichthyosis
Erythroderma
(1) Most common type. Hereditary (autosomal recessive). (1) Hereditary (autosomal recessive). (1) Deficiency in steroid sulfatase,
(2) May be hereditary: autosomal (2) Often called collodion baby as at which removes cholesterol sulfate

10. dominant. birth the baby is covered by a from intracellular spaces.
(3) May be acquired: present at adult, thickened collodion-like membrane (2) Accumulation of cholesterol
usually associated with: which is then shed. sulfate results in persistent cell-to-cell
* Malignancies (lymphoma, adhesion within the stratum
carcinoma of bronchus, breast and corneum, hindering the
cervix). desquamation process
* Sarcoidosis.
* Lupus.
* Drugs.
- Clinical:
(1) Most ichthyoses become apparent either at or around the time of birth. Acquired ichthyosis appears in adult.
(2) Skin resembles fish scales; rough scaly patches and plaques.
- M/P:
(1) Compact, thickened stratum corneum with loss of normal basket weave pattern.
(2) Generally little or no inflammation.
5. Acute Inflammatory Dermatoses:
Acute dermatoses last from days to weeks and are characterized by inflammatory infiltrates (usually composed of lymphocytes and macrophages rather than
neutrophils), edema, and variable degrees of epidermal, vascular, or subcutaneous injury.
- Definition:
Common disorder of the skin characterized by localized mast cell degranulation and resultant dermal microvascular hyperpermeability. This
gives rise to pruritic edematous plaques called wheals.
NB: Angioedema is closely related to urticaria and is characterized by deeper edema of both the dermis and the subcutaneous fat.
- Pathogenesis:
IgE-dependent urticaria IgE-independent urticaria Complement-mediated urticaria
Urticaria
- Most of cases. - May also result from substances that in - Seen in hereditary angioneurotic edema, caused by
(Hives) certain individuals directly incite the an inherited deficiency of C1 inhibitor (results in
- Follow exposure to many
different antigens (e.g. pollens, degranulation of mast cells (such as opiates, uncontrolled activation of the early components of
foods, drugs, insect venom). certain antibiotics, curare, and radiographic the complement system and production of
contrast media). vasoactive mediators).
- Antigens induce release of
vasoactive mediators from mast - Or may be due to exposure to chemicals
cell granules through (such as aspirin), that suppress prostaglandin
sensitization with specific IgE synthesis from arachidonic acid.

11. antibodies.
- Clinical:
(1) Urticaria most often occurs between ages 20 and 40, although all age groups are susceptible.
(2) Individual lesions develop and fade within hours (usually <24 hours), and episodes may last for days or persist for months.
(3) Lesions vary from small, pruritic papules to large edematous plaques (may coalesce to form annular, linear, or arciform configurations).
(4) Most common sites for urticarial eruptions include any area exposed to pressure (such as the trunk, distal extremities, and ears).
(5) Persistent episodes of urticaria may herald an underlying disease (e.g., collagen vascular disorders, Hodgkin lymphoma).
- M/P:
(1) Usually a sparse superficial perivascular mononuclear infiltrate, eosinophils may also be present.
(2) Collagen bundles are more widely spaced than in normal skin, a result of superficial dermal edema.
(3) Superficial lymphatic channels are dilated due to increased absorption of edema fluid.
(4) Epidermal changes are typically absent.
- Definition:
The Greek word eczema, meaning “to boil over,” vividly describes the appearance of acute eczematous dermatitis.
- Clinical:
All forms of eczema are characterized by red, pruritic, papulovesicular, oozing, and crusted lesions that, if persistent, develop into raised,
scaling plaques (due to reactive acanthosis and hyperkeratosis).
- M/P:
(1) During the earliest stages, there is a superficial, perivascular, lymphocytic infiltrate associated with papillary dermal edema and mast cell
degranulation.
(2) Then Epidermal spongiosis occurs. Edema seeps into the intercellular spaces of the epidermis, splaying apart keratinocytes (particularly
in the stratum spinosum). Mechanical shearing of desmosomes and cell membranes by progressive accumulation of intercellular fluid may
Eczematous result in the formation of intraepidermal micro-vesicles.
(spongiotic)
Dermatitis (3) Persistent lesions show epidermal acanthosis, hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, and decreasing spongiosis. Dermis is fibrotic with variable
perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate
- Types:
- Etiology: contact reaction to topical antigens (such as poison ivy or nickel).
- Pathogenesis: Delayed (Type IV) hypersensitivity reaction
Initially, antigens at the epidermal surface are taken up by dendritic Langerhans cells, which then migrate
Allergic contact by way of dermal lymphatics to draining lymph nodes, and present antigen to naive CD4+ T cells, which are
dermatitis activated and develop into effector and memory cells.
On antigen re-exposure, these memory T cells migrate to affected skin sites of antigen localization, where
they adhere to post-capillary venules, extravasate into tissues, and release cytokines and chemokines that
recruit the numerous inflammatory cells characteristic of eczema.

12. - Clinical: as before (but dermatitis occurs at site of contact).
- M/P: as before (but extensive spongiosis, evident from the start).
- Etiology: atopy (associated with history of asthma and allergic rhinitis).
- Pathogenesis: Type I hypersensitivity reaction.
Atopic dermatitis
- Clinical: as before (but commonly on flexure areas, mainly seen in children).
- M/P: as before.
drug-related - Etiology: usually systemic drugs (penicillin).
eczematous - M/P: as before (but more prominent eosinophilic infiltrate in dermis).
dermatitis
Photo-eczematous - Due to UV light exposure.
dermatitis
Primary irritant - Due to repeated rubbing.
dermatitis
NB: Other forms of spongiotic dermatitis
1 – Seborrheic dermatitis (see later).
2 – Pityriasis rosea.
3 – Stasis dermatitis.
- Etiology: seems to be a hypersensitivity reaction to
Infections Drugs Malignancy Collagen vascular diseases
Such as herpes simplex, mycoplasma, Such as penicillin, Carcinomas and Lupus erythematosus,
histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, typhoid, barbiturates, phenytoin, lymphomas. dermatomyositis, and polyarteritis
and leprosy. salicylates, sulfa. nodosa.
- Pathogenesis:
Erythema (1) Epithelial cells are killed by skin-homing CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes.
Multiforme (2) These cytotoxic cells are more prominent in the central portion of the lesions while CD4+ helper and Langerhans cells are more common
(interface in the raised, erythematous periphery.
dermatitis) (3) The precise target antigens within the epidermis in erythema multiforme remain unknown, but there is growing evidence that the basal
cells that reside at the very tips of epidermal rete ridges may preferentially undergo apoptosis.
- Clinical:
(1) Usually self-limited, affect any age.
(2) Affects skin (extensor surfaces of distal extremities, palms, and soles) and mucous membranes.
(3) Lesions are variable (multiform) lesions: papules, macules, vesicles, bullae, and characteristic target lesion (red macule or papule with a
pale, vesicular, or eroded center).

13. (4) Variants:
- Severe adverse cutaneous drug reaction that predominantly involves the skin and mucous membranes
(represent systemic variant of erythema multiforme).
- Mainly affect children.
Stevens-Johnson
- Mainly affect lips and oral mucosa (although the conjunctiva, urethra, and genital and perianal areas may also
syndrome
be affected).
- Presented with fever, erosions and hemorrhagic crusts in affected areas.
- Secondary infection of involved areas due to loss of skin integrity may result in life-threatening sepsis.
- Diffuse necrosis and sloughing of cutaneous and mucosal epithelial surfaces.
Toxic epidermal
necrolysis - Producing a clinical situation analogous to an extensive burn when both infection and fluid loss are clinical
concerns.
- M/P:
(1) Early lesions show a pattern termed interface dermatitis, where a superficial perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate associated with dermal
edema and accumulation of lymphocytes along the dermoepidermal junction, associated with vacuolization of the basal layer of epidermis
(hydropic degeneration).
(2) With time there is upward migration of lymphocytes into the epidermis. Discrete and confluent zones of epidermal necrosis occur with
concomitant blister formation. Dyskeratotic cells are evidenced.
(3) The clinical targetoid (target-like) lesion shows central necrosis surrounded by a rim of perivenular inflammation.
- Differential diagnosis: from other dermatoses with interface dermatitis
(1) Acute graft versus host disease: similar in M/P, differentiated by clinical history (present 2 – 4 weeks after bone marrow
transplantation).
(2) Steven Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis: full thickness epidermal necrosis with separation of epidermis from dermis.
(3) Morbilliform drug eruptions: usually less epidermal damage in comparison to erythema multiform, increased eosinophilic infiltrate in
dermis.
(4) Dermatomyositis / Lupus erythematosis: Chronic disease associated with hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis. Also mucin deposition in dermis
which not seen in erythema multiforme.
6. Chronic Inflammatory Dermatoses:
Chronic lesions persist for months to years and are often associated with changes in epidermal growth (atrophy or hyperplasia) or dermal fibrosis. The skin
surface in some chronic inflammatory dermatoses is roughened as a result of excessive or abnormal scale formation and shedding. However, not all scaling
lesions are inflammatory (as seen in ichthyoses).
Psoriasis Vulgaris - Etiology & pathogenesis:
(psoriasiform dermatitis) (1) Seems to be multifactorial, with contributions from genetic and environmental factors.

14. (2) There is a strong association between psoriasis and HLA-C (particularly with the HLA-Cw*0602 allele, which present in 2/3
affected individuals).
(3) Sensitized populations of CD4+ T helper cells and activated CD8+ effector T cells enter the skin and accumulate in the epidermis.
The causative antigens for this reaction remain unclear. T cell homing to the skin may create an abnormal microenvironment by
inducing the secretion of cytokines (e.g. interferon- γ and TNF) and growth factors that induce keratinocyte proliferation, resulting
in the characteristic lesions.
NB: There is much evidence that, as with rheumatoid arthritis, TNF is a major mediator in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. Indeed,
anti-TNF therapies provide benefit and are currently in use.
(4) Koebner phenomenon: Psoriatic lesions can be induced in susceptible individuals by local trauma, which may induce a local
inflammatory response that promotes lesion development.
- Clinical:
(1) Most frequently affects the skin of the elbows, knees, scalp, lumbosacral areas, intergluteal cleft, and glans penis.
(2) The typical lesion is a well-demarcated, pink to salmon-colored plaque covered by loosely adherent scale that is characteristically
silver-white in color.
(3) Auspitz sign: multiple, minute, bleeding points when the scale is lifted from the plaque.
(4) Nail changes occur in 30% of cases, including yellow-brown discoloration, with pitting, dimpling, and separation of the nail plate
from the underlying bed (onycholysis).
(5) Also may be associated with arthritis (Psoriatic arthritis).
- M/P:
(1) Marked acanthosis, with regular downward elongation of the rete ridges (sometimes described as appearing like test tubes in a
rack).
(2) Extensive overlying parakeratotic scale is also seen.
(3) The stratum granulosum is thinned or absent.
(4) Typical of psoriatic plaques is thinning of the portion of the epidermal cell layer that overlies the tips of dermal papillae
(suprapapillary plates) and dilated, tortuous blood vessels within these papillae (This is why Auspitz sign is seen in psoriasis).
(5) Neutrophils form small aggregates within the superficial epidermis (spongiform pustules of Kogoj) and within the parakeratotic
stratum corneum (Munro microabscesses).
- Psoriasis variants:
Pustular psoriasis Guttate psoriasis
(1) Characterized by acute onset of sterile pustules rather than large erythematous (1) Characterized by rapid onset of
plaques. widespread small scaly plaques.
(2) Either benign and localized (hands and feet) or generalized and life-threatening (with (2) Frequently associated with
associated fever, leukocytosis, arthralgia, diffuse cutaneous and mucosal pustules, antecedent streptococcal
secondary infection, and electrolyte disturbances). pharyngitis.
- M/P: large pustules in stratum corneum/epidermis, intact or slightly diminished stratum - M/P: Focal mounts of

15. granulosum with less prominent acanthosis (because of rapid onset of disease). parakeratosis with neutrophils, with
minimal acanthosis.
- Differential diagnosis: from other lesions with Psoriasiform dermatitis
(1) Pityriasis rubra pilaris: has diffuse hyperkeratosis with alternating parakeratosis and orthokeratosis (anuclear keratin) in both
vertical and horizontal directions (giving what is called checkerboard pattern); stratum granulosum is intact, no suprapapillary
thinning or neutrophils in stratum corneum (unless secondary infection).
(2) Lichen simplex chronicus: scarring of dermal papillae due to persistent rubbing or itching; no thinning of suprapapillary plate;
marked hyperkeratosis and prominent stratum granulosum (similar to acral skin).
(3) Secondary syphilis: epidermis shows parakeratosis & psoriasiform hyperplasia, within dermis there is perivascular lymphocytes
infiltrate that usually contains plasma cells, also visualization of organism (Warthin-Starry stain or better IHC stains).
(4) Dermatophytes: parakeratosis, acanthosis, +/- spongiosis, and Hyphae are seen by PAS stain.
- Etiology & pathogenesis:
(1) Therapeutic studies with ketoconazole suggest that Malassezia furfur (which is associated with tinea versicolor), may have a role
in some cases.
(2) Also observed in people with Parkinson disease (show increased sebum production secondary to dopamine deficiency) and once
treated with levodopa, the oiliness of the skin decreases and the seborrheic dermatitis improves.
NB: it is important to note that seborrheic dermatitis is not a disease of the sebaceous glands. Other conditions associated with
increased sebaceous activity (e.g. acne) do not show association between increased sebum and appearance of seborrheic
dermatitis, so sebum production is unlikely to be the sole or primary factor in the pathogenesis of seborrheic dermatitis.
(3) Seborrheic dermatitis is also common in many HIV–infected individuals (and usually difficult to be treated).
- Clinical:
(1) Classically involves regions with a high density of sebaceous glands (e.g. the scalp, glabella, external auditory canal,
retroauricular area, nasolabial folds, and the presternal area).
Seborrheic Dermatitis
(2) Lesions are erythematous scaling papules and macules, sometimes with a greasy yellow appearance.
(3) Dandruff is the common clinical expression of seborrheic dermatitis of the scalp.
(4) In infants, seborrheic dermatitis presents as cradle cap.
- M/P:
Seborrheic dermatitis share histologic features with both spongiotic dermatitis and psoriasis
Early (acute) seborrheic dermatitis Late (chronic) seborrheic dermatitis Subacute seborrheic dermatitis
(1) Being more spongiotic. (1) More pronounced psoriasiform - Transition between acute and
(2) Typically, mounds of parakeratosis hyperplasia and only minimal spongiosis. chronic.
containing neutrophils and serum, often (2) Sometimes the differentiation from
present at the ostia of hair follicles (so- psoriasis can be difficult but the presence
called follicular lipping). of scale crusts in a folliculocentric
(3) Papillary dermis show edema, dilated distribution favors seborrheic dermatitis.

16. blood vessels and superficial perivascular
infiltrate of lymphocytes, histiocytes and
occasional neutrophils.
- Etiology & Pathogenesis:
(1) May represent an abnormal, delayed hypersensitivity reaction to altered epidermal antigens.
(2) These antigens at the level of the basal cell layer and the dermoepidermal junction elicit a cell-mediated cytotoxic (CD8+) T cell
immune response (In support of this notion, T lymphocyte infiltrates and hyperplasia of Langerhans cells are characteristic features
of this disorder).
(3) It shows Koebner phenomenon like psoriasis.
- Clinical:
(1) Usually flexor arms and legs, glans penis and mucous membranes (especially oral mucosa).
(2) Usually self-limited (resolves spontaneously 1 to 2 years after onset), often leaving zones of postinflammatory
hyperpigmentation.
(3) Cutaneous lesions consist of itchy, purple, flat-topped papules that may coalesce focally to form plaques.
(NB: Lichen planus is disease of 6 P’s = Pruritic, purple, polygonal, planar papules, and plaques).
(4) Wickham straie: papules are often highlighted by white dots or lines, which are created by areas of hypergranulosis.
(5) Oral mucosal lesions may last longer, appear as white, reticulated, or netlike areas involving the mucosa.
Lichen Planus
- M/P:
(interface dermatitis with
(1) Dense, bandlike chronic inflammatory infiltrate (T cells and macrophages) along the dermoepidermal junction.
band-like infiltrate =
lichenoid dermatitis) (2) Basal keratinocytes, which show degeneration, necrosis, and a resemblance in size and contour to more mature cells of the
stratum spinosum (squamatization).
(3) A consequence of this destructive infiltration of lymphocytes is a redefinition of the normal, smoothly undulating configuration
of the dermoepidermal interface to a more angulated zigzag pattern with pointed rete ridges (sawtoothing).
(4) Civatte’s (colloid) bodies: Anucleate, necrotic basal cells may become incorporated into the inflamed papillary dermis.
(5) There are also hyperkeratosis and hypergranulosis.
- Lichen planus variants:
Atrophic Lichen Planus Hypertrophic Lichen Planus Bullous Lichen Planus Lichen Planopilaris
- Thinned epidermis, subtle - Thickened epidermis - Subepidermal blister - Preferentially affecting
interface changes and subtle (acanthosis) the epithelium of hair
hypergranulosis. follicles (causing alopecia).
- Differential diagnosis: from other causes of lichenoid dermatitis
(1) Lichenoid keratosis: Solitary lesion, identical to lichen planus, adjacent areas of solar lentigo may be the clue to diagnosis.
(2) Lichenoid drug eruption: similar to lichen planus but with parakeratosis and eosinophils.
(3) Lichenoid pigmented purpuric dermatosis: less epidermal changes and more prominent dermal hemorrhage.

17. 7. Blistering (Bullous) Diseases:
- Definition:
Heterogeneous group of disorders affecting the skin or mucous membranes and characterized by blister formation.
- Classification:
Intraepidermal Bullae
Subepidermal Bullae
Suprabasal Spinous Subcorneal
1. Pemphigus vulgaris and 1. Spongiotic Dermatitis (e.g. eczema, contact 1. Bullous Impetigo. 1. Bullous Pemphigoid.
variants. dermatitis). 2. Erythema toxicum 2. Cicatricial Pemphigoid.
2. Paraneoplastic pemphigus. 2. Hailey-Hailey disease. neonatorum. 3. Linear IgA Dermatosis.
3. Herpes infections. 4. Dermatitis Herpetiformis.
3. Darier’s disease. 3. Subcorneal Pustular
4. Fixed Drug eruptions (epidermal type). 5. Erythema Multiforme (dermal
dermatosis.
5. Friction Blisters. type).
6. Erythema multiforme (epidermal type ). 4. Miliaria Crystallina.
6. Fixed Drug Eruptions (dermal
5. Pemphigus foliaceus and type).
variants. 7. Epidermolysis Bullosa.
8. Bullous Lupus Erythematosus:
- Definition:
Inflammatory Blistering disorder caused by autoantibodies to desmosomes, result in the dissolution of intercellular attachments within the
epidermis and mucosal epithelium.
- Pathogenesis:
All forms of pemphigus are caused by IgG autoantibodies against desmogleins.
- M/P:
(1) Intraepidermal blisters due to acantholysis (from IgG against desmosomes).
Pemphigus (2) Acantholytic cells dissociate from one another, lose their polyhedral shape and become rounded.
(3) Variable superficial dermal infiltration by lymphocytes, histiocytes, and eosinophils accompanies all forms of pemphigus.
- Immunofluorescence:
Lesional sites show a characteristic net-like pattern of intercellular IgG deposits.
- Differential diagnosis: other causes of intraepidermal bullae
- Types:
- Pathogenesis:
Pemphigus Vulgaris
IgG autoantibodies against Dsg1 and Dsg3 (cause blisters in the deep suprabasal epidermis).

18. - Clinical:
(1) The most common type (more than 80% of cases).
(2) Involves the oral mucosa first, then may involve skin (especially on the scalp, face, axilla, groin, trunk, and points
of pressure).
(3) Primary lesions are superficial vesicles and bullae that rupture easily, leaving shallow erosions covered with dried
serum and crust.
(4) Positive Nikolsky sign: light rubbing of the skin results in exfoliation of the outermost layer, with blister
formation in this area within minutes.
(5) Healing is often accompanied by post–inflammatory hyperpigmentation but no scarring.
- M/P:
(1) Characteristic suprabasilar separation and acantholysis.
(2) Single layer of intact basal cells that forms the blister base remains attached (tombstoning).
(3) Prominent extension of acantholysis into hair follicles.
- Clinical:
(1) Rare (1-2% of cases) variant of pemphigus vulgaris.
(2) Usually presents not with blisters but with large, moist, verrucous (wart-like) plaques studded with pustules on
Pemphigus the groin, axillae, and flexural surfaces.
Vegetans
- M/P:
(1) Supra basal acantholysis is subtle, masked by marked proliferation of squamous epithelium (acanthosis).
(2) Large intraepidermal microabscesses filled with eosinophils and occasional acantholytic keratinocytes.
- Pathogenesis:
IgG autoantibodies are against Dsg1 alone (leading to superficial, subcorneal blisters).
- Clinical:
(1) Endemic in Brazil (where it is called fogo selvagem or “wild fire”).
Pemphigus
(2) Usually affects scalp, face, chest, and back. The mucous membranes are rarely affected.
Foliaceus
(3) Bullae are so superficial that may not appear on examination and replaced by superficial erosions and crusting.
- M/P:
(1) Acantholysis occurs in subcorneal areas (only the granular cell layer is affected).
(2) Stratum corneum may be denuded.
- Clinical:
Pemphigus (1) Combined features of pemphigus foliaceus and SLE.
Erythematosus (2) Blisters selectively involve the malar area of the face in a lupus erythematosus–like fashion.
(3) SLE manifestations usually not present, but if present usually are mild.

19. - M/P:
As pemphigus foliaceus.
- Clinical:
(1) Occurs in association with various malignancies, most commonly hematopoietic malignancies (e.g. non-Hodgkin
lymphoma, CLL, Castleman tumor, Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia). May also associated with thymoma.
Paraneoplastic (2) Present with oral and cutaneous erosions and bullae.
Pemphigus - M/P: more than ½ of cases show combination of
(1) Suprabasal acantholysis.
(2) Lichenoid changes (band-like chronic inflammatory cell infiltrate).
(3) Changes of interface dermatitis (vacuolar degeneration, dyskeratotic keratinocytes and lymphocyte exocytosis).
- Definition:
Inflammatory blister disorder of skin causing subepidermal blistering due to IgG antibodies to hemidesmosomes.
- Pathogenesis:
(1) IgG antibodies against hemidesmosomal proteins, where most of the bullous pemphigoid antigen (BPAG) is located.
(2) Two types of proteins/antigens: BPAG1 and BPAG2 (see histology). Only antibodies to BPAG2 are proven to cause blistering.
- Clinical:
(1) It may involve only the skin (including inner aspects of the thighs, flexor surfaces of the forearms, axillae, groin, and lower abdomen) or the
skin and mucosal surfaces (mainly oral mucosa, usually appearing after the cutaneous lesions).
(2) Lesions are pruritic tense bullae, filled with clear fluid, on normal or red patches of skin. Nikolsky sign is negative.
(3) Prior to blistering, the red itchy patches may be thought to be a kind of urticaria.
Bullous (4) The bullae do not rupture as easily as do the blisters seen in pemphigus and if they are not secondarily infected, they heal without
Pemphigoid scarring.
- M/P:
(1) Subepidermal nonacantholytic blisters, with inflammatory infiltrate including lymphocytes and eosinophils, no neutrophils.
(2) Early or prodromal lesions may show: basal cell vacuolization (spongiosis) without frank blister formation, upper dermal edema,
perivascular lymphohistiocytic infiltrate, accompanied by conspicuous eosinophils.
- Immunofluorescence:
(1) Linear IgG and C3 antibodies to hemidesmosomes at lamina lucida of basement membrane.
(2) Antibodies bind to epidermal side in NaCl split skin test.
- Differential diagnosis: other causes of subepidermal bullae
(1) Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita: subepidermal blister with mixed inflammatory cell dermal infiltrate, linear band of IgG along dermal-
epidermal junction but on dermal side in NaCl split skin test.
(2) Cicatricial pemphigoid: usually affects mucus membrane (especially conjunctiva – causing ocular scarring), subepidermal blister with mixed

20. inflammatory cells, linear band of IgG along dermal-epidermal junction but on dermal side in NaCl split skin test.
(3) Bullous lupus erythematosus: fulfills criteria for SLE (including positive lupus serology), linear or granular deposition of autoantibodies
along basement membrane, reactivity on dermal side in NaCl split skin.
(4) Dermatitis herpetiformis (see below).
- Definition:
Very pruritic autoimmune blistering disorder associated with gluten-sensitive enteropathy (celiac disease).
- Pathogenesis:
(1) Genetically predisposed individuals develop lgA antibodies to dietary gluten (derived from the wheat protein gliadin).
(2) The antibodies cross-react with reticulin (a component of the anchoring fibrils that anchor hemidesmosomes to the dermis).
(3) The resultant injury and inflammation produce a subepidermal blister.
- Clinical:
(1) Mainly involves extensor surfaces of elbows, knees, buttocks and back.
(2) “Herpetiform” because vesicles are small (pinhead sized) and grouped bilaterally and symmetrically (as with herpes).
(3) Intense purities, which may lead to erosions due to intense scratching.
Dermatitis (4) May show response to a gluten-free diet.
Herpetiformis - M/P:
(1) Early event, fibrin and neutrophils accumulate selectively at the tips of dermal papillae, forming small microabscesses.
(2) The basal cells overlying these microabscesses show vacuolization and focal dermoepidermal separation that ultimately coalesce to form a
true subepidermal blister.
- Immunofluorescence:
Granular IgA pattern in dermal papillae.
- Differential diagnosis: other causes of subepidermal bullae
(1) Bullous pemphigoid: large tense blisters on flexor surfaces, axilla, groin and mucosa, subepidermal nonacantholytic blisters with
inflammatory infiltrate including lymphocytes and eosinophils, no microabscesses, linear deposition of IgG and C3 at basememnt membrane.
(2) Linear IgA dermatosis: Often occurs after administration of antibiotics (predominantly vancomycin or penicillin), subepidermal blisters with
neutrophilic infiltration, homogenous band of IgA at the dermal-epidermal junction; no anti-endomysial or anti-tissue transglutaminase IgA
antibodies; not gluten sensitive.
- Definition:
Group of noninflammatory blister disorders caused by inherited defects in structural proteins that lend mechanical stability to the skin.
Epidermolysis - Types & Pathogenesis:
Bullosa EB Simplex Junctional EB Dystrophic EB
(1) Result from mutations in the genes encoding keratins 14 or 5 (1) Result from mutations in genes (1) Result from mutations in
(these two proteins normally pair with one another to make a encoding laminin &/or gene encoding type VII

21. functional keratin fiber). a6b4 integrin. collagen.
(2) Causes intraepidermal tissue separation & degeneration of basal (2) Causes blisters within lamina (2) Causes blisters are sub-
cell layer. lucida (skin appears normal). lamina densa.
- Clinical:
(1) Family history of epidermolysis bullosa or an affected parent.
(2) Blisters at sites of pressure, rubbing, or trauma, at or soon after birth.
(3) Nail loss or deformed nails.
(4) Blistering in or around the mouth and throat with feeding difficulty or swallowing difficulty.
(5) Complications: severe malnutrition secondary to feeding difficulty, infections, loss of function of the hands and feet, squamous cell
carcinoma (especially in dystrophic type).
- M/P:
(1) Noninflammatory subepidermal blister, with sparse perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate.
(2) Superficial dermis is fibrotic in old lesions.
- Immunofluorescence:
Negative.
NB: Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita
* Definition: Non-congenital, autoimmune, chronic blistering disease of skin and mucus membranes.
* Pathogenesis: IgG Autoantibodies against NC1 (noncollagenous) domain of type VII collagen, or central triple-helical (collagenous)
domain of type VII.
* Clinical: Usually affects elderly with blisters at trauma-prone areas.
* M/P: Subepidermal blister with mixed inflammatory cell dermal infiltrate (bullous pemphigoid-like).
* Immunofluorescence: Linear band of IgG along dermal-epidermal junction but on dermal side in NaCl split skin test.
- Definition:
Non-inflammatory blistering disorder due to disturbance of porphyrin metabolism (porphyrin is present in hemoglobin, myoglobin and
cytochromes.
- Types & Pathogenesis:
Congenital Erythropoietic Acute Intermittent Mixed
Erythrohepatic Protoporphyria Porphyria Cutanea Tarda
Porphyria Porphyria Porphyria Porphyria
Rare autosomal recessive Rare autosomal recessive form (1) Second most common (1) Most frequent type of
disease with mutation in of porphyria cutanea tarda, with type of porphyria (but still porphyria.
uroporphyrinogen-III markedly deficient activity of rare). (2) Autosomal dominant
synthase gene uroporphyrinogen -------------
(2) Autosomal dominant disorder with deficiency of
decarboxylase. disorder with uroporphyrinogen
porphobilinogen deaminase decarboxylase enzyme.

22. enzyme (ALA dehydratase
enzyme) deficiency.
- Clinical:
(1) Hemolytic anemia & splenomegaly.
(2) Cutaneous manifestations: photosensitivity, urticaria, vesicles and pigmentary changes in sun-exposure areas.
(3) Neurological manifestations (prominent in acute intermittent porphyria): peripheral neuropathy, seizures, psychotic symptoms.
(4) Lab: Porphyrin level in urine, stool and RBCs is the golden diagnostic test.
- M/P:
(1) Noninflammatory subepidermal vesicle, with no/minimal inflammation
(2) Marked thickening of superficial dermal vessels (may appear rigid).
(3) Porphyria cutanea tarda: dermal papillae protrude into bulla with festooned pattern, Occasional eosinophilic PAS positive globules
arranged in linear fashion are seen in blister roof (caterpillar bodies).
- Immunofluorescence:
(1) Deposition of IgG (and to lesser extent IgM, fibrinogen and C3) at blood vessels in the papillary dermis.
(2) Weak linear deposition at the dermo-epidermal junction and within basement membrane is also seen.
8. Scleroderma:
- Definition:
Multisystem connective tissue disease that is subdivided into two major groups:
(1) Limited scleroderma: disease is limited, involves hands, forearms and face, may be a part of CREST syndrome.
(2) Diffuse scleroderma: diffuse cutaneous sclerosis, frequent visceral involvement.
- Pathogenesis:
A marked increase in type 1 collagen gene expression occurs in scleroderma, leading to increased collagen synthesis.
- Clinical:
(1) Indurated skin plaques with irregular areas of hyper- or hypopigmentation.
(2) CREST syndrome (Calcinosis, Raynaud's syndrome, Esophageal dysmotility, Sclerodactyly = limited scleroderma, Telangiectasia).
(3) Laboratory tests: show anti-topoisomerase antibodies (diffuse systemic form), or anti-centromere antibodies (limited form, and the CREST syndrome).
- M/P:
(1) Thickening and hyalinization of connective tissue of deep dermis, subcutaneous fat and muscular fascia, may be mucin deposition between collagen bundles.
(2) Perivascular and focal interstitial lymphocytic and plasma cell infiltrate in subcutaneous fat.
(3) Often atrophy of epidermis, atrophy of adnexal structures, and thickening and narrowing of small vessels.

23. - Differential diagnosis: from other causes of sclerosing dermatosis
(1) Morphea: appear as localized indurated plaques on trunk, with similar M/P of scleroderma (also known as localized scleroderma).
(2) Lichen sclerosus: presented with atrophic hypopigmented patches or plaques, M/P shows hyperkeratosis, epidermal atrophy, loss of rete ridges, with
papillary dermal collagen homogenization and edema, and lymphocytic infiltrate beneath altered papillary dermal collagen.
9. Panniculitis:
- Definition:
Panniculitis is an inflammatory reaction in the subcutaneous adipose tissue.
NB: Inadequate biopsy specimens (particularly punch biopsies) may include no subcutaneous fat, so biopsy of a deep wedge of tissue to generously sample the
subcutis is usually required for histologic diagnosis.
- Types: It may be septal or lobular.
Septal Lobular
Affect the connective tissue septa separating lobules of fat. Affect the lobules of fat themselves.
e.g. erythema nodosum, alpha1 antitrypsin deficiency, or lipodermatosclerosis e.g. nodular vasculitis (erythema induratum), pancreatic fat necrosis, physical
(sclerosing panniculitis). and factitious panniculitis (due to blunt force, pinching, cold or injection of
foreign substances for secondary gain), or lupus panniculitis (lupus profundus).
Erythema Nodosum Erythema Induratum
- Most common form, usually has an acute presentation. - Uncommon type of panniculitis that affects primarily adolescents and
- Causes: often associated with menopausal women, usually has a chronic presentation.
(1) Infections (β-hemolytic streptococcal infection, tuberculosis and, less - Causes:
commonly, coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, and leprosy). (1) Originally considered a hypersensitivity response to tuberculosis, but today
(2) Drug administration (sulfonamides, oral contraceptives). most commonly occurs without an associated underlying disease.
(3) Sarcoidosis. (4) Inflammatory bowel disease. (2) The exact etiology still unknown, may be primary vasculitis affecting deep
vessels supplying lobules of the subcutis, with subsequent necrosis and
(5) Certain malignant neoplasms. (6) Idiopathic.
inflammation within the fat.
- Clinical:
- Clinical:
(1) Often involves the lower legs.
(1) Often involves the lower legs.
(2) Presents as poorly defined, tender, erythematous plaques and nodules,
(2) Presents as an erythematous, slightly tender nodule that usually goes on to
usually not ulcerate.
ulcerate.
(3) Fever and malaise may accompany the cutaneous signs.
- M/P:
(4) Over the course of weeks, lesions usually flatten and pigmented, leaving no
(1) Early lesions show necrotizing vasculitis affecting small- to medium-sized
residual clinical scars, while new lesions develop.

24. - M/P: arteries and veins in the deep dermis and subcutis.
(1) Early lesions, widening of the connective tissue septa is due to edema, (2) Later, granulomatous inflammation and zones of caseous necrosis involve
fibrin exudation, and neutrophilic infiltration. the fat lobule.
(2) Later, septal infiltration by lymphocytes, histiocytes, multinucleated giant
cells, and occasional eosinophils is associated with septal fibrosis.
(3) Vasculitis is not present.
Lipodermatosclerosis (sclerosing panniculitis) Lupus Panniculitis (lupus profundus)
- Associated with stasis secondary to venous insufficiency or obesity. - May develop in normal skin or preexisting skin lesion of patient with systemic
- M/P: or discoid lupus erythematosus.
(1) Predominantly septal, with membranocyctic fat necrosis characterized by - M/P:
cystic cavitis lined by crenulated hayaline membrane. (1) Predominantly lobular, with hyaline fat necrosis characterized by dense
(2) There are variable mild perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate. eosinophilic sclerosis around remnants of adipocytes.
(3) Epidermis and superficial dermis usually show features of stasis changes. (2) There are lymphoid nodules with germinal centers at periphery of fat
lobules.
11. Disorders of Epidermal Appendages:
- Incidences:
(1) Age: most common in middle to late teenage years.
(2) Sex: affects both males and females, although males tend to have more severe disease.
(3) Race: seen in all races, but is usually milder in people of Asian descent.
- Etiology & pathogenesis:
(1) Four key components contribute to the development of acne:
changes in keratinization of the hypertrophy of sebaceous glands lipase-synthesizing bacteria inflammation of the follicle
Acne lower portion of the follicular with puberty or increased (Propionibacterium acnes) associated with release of
Vulgaris infundibulum with the activity (sebum secretion) due to colonizing the upper and cytotoxic and chemotactic
development of a keratin plug hormonal stimulation midportion of the hair follicle, factors
blocking outflow of sebum to the converting lipids within sebum to
skin surface pro-inflammatory fatty acids
(2) Acne may be induced or exacerbated by:
* Drugs (corticosteroids, adrenocorticotropic hormone, testosterone, gonadotropins, contraceptives, trimethadione, iodides, and bromides).
* Occupational contactants (cutting oils, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and coal tars).
* Occlusive conditions (heavy clothing, cosmetics, and tropical climates).
- Clinical:

25. (1) Acne is divided into noninflammatory and inflammatory types, although the types may coexist.
(2) Noninflammatory types consists of open and closed comedones:
Open comedones (blackhead) Closed comedones (whitehead)
Small follicular papules containing a central black keratin plug. Follicular papules without a visible central plug.
This color is the result of oxidation of melanin pigment (not dirt). Because the keratin plug is trapped beneath the epidermal surface,
these lesions are potential sources of follicular rupture and
inflammation.
(3) Inflammatory acne is characterized by erythematous papules, nodules, and pustules.
(4) Severe variants (e.g., acne conglobata) result in sinus tract formation and physical scarring.
- M/P:
(1) Comedones (open or closed): cyst-like cavities filled with compact mass of keratinous material, trapped hairs, and numerous bacteria.
Sebaceous acini are atrophic or absent.
(2) Variable lymphohistiocytic infiltrates are present in and around affected follicles, and extensive acute and chronic inflammation accompanies
follicular rupture.
(3) Then gradual resolution, often with scar.
- Treatment:
Antibiotics (for Propionibacterium acnes), isotretinoin (anti-sebaceous action).
- Definition:
Skin disorder leading to redness and pimples on the nose, forehead, cheekbones, and chin. The inflamed pimples and redness of rosacea can look
a great deal like acne, but blackheads are almost never present.
- Incidences:
(1) Age: Rosacea is a common disease of middle age and beyond.
(2) Sex: common in females.
(3) Race: common in fair-skinned individuals.
Rosacea
- Etiology and pathogenesis:
(acne
(1) It seems that inappropriate activation of the innate immune system may play a role in this disorder.
rosacea)
(2) Individuals with rosacea have high cutaneous levels of the endogenous antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin (an important mediator of the innate
immune response).
- Clinical: Four stages are recognized
(1) Flushing episodes (pre-rosacea).
(2) Persistent erythema and telangiectasia.
(3) Pustules and papules.
(4) Rhinophyma: permanent thickening of the nasal skin by confluent erythemaous papules and follicular prominence.

26. - M/P:
(1) Rosacea is characterized by a nonspecific perifollicular infiltrate composed of lymphocytes surrounded by dermal edema and telangiectasia.
(2) In the pustular phase neutrophils may colonize the follicles, and follicular rupture may cause a granulomatous dermal response.
(3) The development of rhinophyma is associated with hypertrophy of sebaceous glands and follicular plugging by keratotic debris.