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Chapter 15 NUTR
1.
Chapter 15
Life Cycle Nutrition: Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
2.
Nutrition during Infancy •
The first year of life is a time of rapid growth and development. • Breast milk or iron-fortified formula is the primary food the first year with gradual introduction of solids beginning at four to six months of age. • Preterm infants have very special nutrient needs. • Mealtimes with toddlers should be a pleasant and relaxed environment. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
3.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
4.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Energy and Nutrient Needs Energy Intake and Activity • Weight doubles the first five months, triples by one year. • High basal metabolic rate • Rapid growth • 45 kcal/pound body weight Energy Nutrients • Carbohydrates at 60% of energy intake, needed for brain • Fat provides most of the energy • Protein especially important for growth and development © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
5.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Energy and Nutrient Needs Vitamins and Minerals • More than double the needs of an adult in proportion to weight • Vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D and iodine are especially high Water • Higher % of water compared to adults • Found outside the cells and easily lost • Dehydration from diarrhea and vomiting is a concern. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
6.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
7.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Breast Milk Frequency and Duration of Breastfeeding • First few weeks: 8-12 feedings per day on demand • Every two to three hours • 10-15 minutes on each breast © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
8.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Breast Milk Energy Nutrients • Lactose, the form of carbohydrate in breast milk, enhances calcium absorption. • Alpha-lactalbumin is the form of protein in milk and is easily digested and absorbed. • Fat is generous in essential fatty acids. Vitamins • Vitamin D content is low. • Vitamin D supplementation is recommended by AAP for breastfed infants. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
9.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
10.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Breast Milk Minerals • Calcium is well absorbed • High bioavailability of iron and zinc • Low in sodium and fluoride Supplements • Vitamin D, iron and fluoride during first year • A single dose of vitamin K is given at birth. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
11.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Breast Milk Immunological Protection • Colostrum, the first secretions from the breast, provides antibodies and white blood cells. • Bifidus factors allow for the growth of normal flora. – Lactoferrin is a protein that binds iron so that bacteria cannot grow. – Lactadherin is a protein that fights viruses that cause diarrhea. • Breast milk also contains growth factors and lipase enzymes. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
12.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Breast Milk Allergy and Disease Protection • Fewer allergies than formula-fed babies • Lower blood pressure as adults • Lower blood cholesterol as adults Other Potential Benefits • Less obesity as adults • Indications of positive effect on later intelligence © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
13.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Breast Milk Breast Milk Banks • Donated milk can be provided to those who are unable to provide sufficient milk to their infant. • Cigarette smokers, and those who use illegal drugs, take medications, drink alcoholic beverages (greater than 2 per day), or have communicable diseases are not allowed to donate. • Available by prescription • May be used for very-low-birthweight infants © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
14.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Infant Formula Infant Formula Composition • Infants can be weaned to formula or other appropriate foods when breastfeeding is ended. • Copy breast milk if possible • Iron-fortified Risks of Formula Feeding • Be careful about lead-contaminated water. • Contains no antibodies • Use proper food handling techniques. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
15.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
16.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Infant Formula Infant Formula Standards • AAP guidelines • FDA mandates safety and nutritional qualities Special Formulas • For premature infants or those with inherited diseases • Hypoallergenic formulas or soy formulas for infants with allergies • Soy formulas for lactose intolerance and vegans © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
17.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Infant Formula Inappropriate Formulas • Soy beverages are nutritionally incomplete and inappropriate. • Goat’s milk is deficient in folate. Nursing Bottle Tooth Decay • Can be caused by formula, milk, or juice • Prolonged exposure to formula when sleeping • Upper and lower teeth may be affected by decay. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
18.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
19.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Special Needs of Preterm Infants Limited nutrient stores Physical and metabolic immaturity Long-chain fatty acids are important for the healthy growth of blood vessels and bones. Preterm breast milk fortified with preterm formula © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
20.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Introducing Cow’s Milk No cow’s milk the first year Contains the protein casein and may cause intestinal bleeding and anemia in the first year of life Whole cow’s milk from 1-2 years of age Reduced-fat cow’s milk gradually introduced between 2-5 years of age © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
21.
Nutrition during Infancy •
Introducing Solid Foods When to Begin • 4-6 months • Timing varies from infant to infant depending on growth rates, activities, and environmental conditions. • Beikost is any nonmilk foods given to an infant. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Infancy •
Introducing Solid Foods Food Allergies • Introduce single-ingredient foods, one at a time. • Period of 4 to 5 days between new foods • Rice cereal, then oat and barley, and lastly wheat • Allergic reactions include skin rash, digestive upset, or respiratory discomfort. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Infancy •
Introducing Solid Foods Choice of Infant Foods • Should be provided with variety, balance, and moderation • Palatable and nutritious • No added salt, sugar, or seasonings • Safe and convenient • Fat information is not provided on food labels © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Infancy •
Introducing Solid Foods Foods to Provide Iron • Iron-fortified cereals with vitamin C-rich foods and juices • Meat or meat alternatives such as legumes Foods to Provide Vitamin C • Vegetables first, then fruits • Set limits on fruit juice consumption at 4-6 ounces per day. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Infancy •
Introducing Solid Foods Foods to Omit • Concentrated sweets • Products with sugar alcohols (sorbitol) that may cause diarrhea • Canned vegetables contain too much sodium. • There is a botulism risk with honey and corn syrup. • Choking hazards from carrots, cherries, gum, hard or gel-like candies, hot dogs, marshmallows, nuts, peanut butter, popcorn, raw celery, whole beans, and whole grapes © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Infancy •
Introducing Solid Foods Vegetarian Diets during Infancy • Rice milk is inappropriate for infants and toddlers. • Iron-fortified cereals needed until the second year of life • Milk products and variety are important to proper nutrition. • Deficiencies of vitamin D, vitamin B12, iron, and calcium may develop. • Energy-dense foods are required. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Infancy •
Introducing Solid Foods Foods at One Year • 2-3 cups cow’s milk • Be careful of milk anemia when milk is consumed excessively. • Balance and variety from all food groups • Drink liquids from a cup, not a bottle © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Infancy •
Mealtimes with Toddlers Discourage unacceptable behavior. Let toddlers explore and enjoy food. Don’t force foods. Let children choose nutritious foods. Limit sweets. Make mealtimes pleasant. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Energy needs, nutrient needs, and appetites during childhood vary because of growth and physical activity. • Hunger and nutrient deficiencies affect behavior. • Nutrition concerns at this age include lead poisoning, high energy, sugar and fat intakes, iron deficiency, caffeine consumption, food allergies, and food intolerances. • Adults and schools need to provide children with nutrient-dense foods. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Energy and Nutrient Needs Energy Intake and Activity • Needs vary widely because of growth and physical activity. • Energy requirements: – 1 year: 800 kcalories – 6 years: 1,600 kcalories – 10 years: 2,000 kcalories – Inactivity can lead to obesity. • Vegans may have difficulty in meeting energy needs. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Energy and Nutrient Needs Carbohydrate and Fiber • Carbohydrate recommendations are the same as those for adults. • Fiber intakes change with age. Fat and Fatty Acids • Children 1-3 years should have 30-40% of energy from fat. • Children 4-18 years should have 25-35% of energy from fat. • Low-fat diets may have low vitamin and mineral content. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Energy and Nutrient Needs Protein • Needs increase slightly with age • Requirement considers nitrogen balance, the quality of protein consumed, and the added needs of growth Vitamins and Minerals • Needs increase with age. • Balanced diet meets all needs except iron • Iron-fortified foods are important. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Energy and Nutrient Needs Supplements • Rely on foods • Supplements not needed Planning Children’s Meals • Variety of foods from each food group • Proper portion sizes © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Hunger and Malnutrition in Children Hunger and Behavior • Missing meals, especially breakfast, affects behavior and academic performance. • Low blood glucose, smaller glycogen stores © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Hunger and Malnutrition in Children Iron Deficiency and Behavior • Affects behavior and intellectual performance • Affects attention span and learning ability • Brain is affected by low iron before the blood is affected. Other Nutrient Deficiencies and Behavior • Marginal malnutrition may affect behavior. • Affects personal appearance also © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
The Malnutrition-Lead Connection Malnourished children are more vulnerable to lead poisoning. Anemia caused by lead may be mistaken for an iron problem. Can develop learning disabilities and behavioral problems Ban on lead in food and the environment has helped © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Hyperactivity and “Hyper” Behavior Hyperactivity, also called attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) • Interferes with social development and academic behavior • Dietary changes and alternative therapies do not solve true hyperactivity. • No evidence that sugar causes hyperactivity © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Hyperactivity and “Hyper” Behavior Misbehaving children need consistent care. • Regular hours of sleep • Regular mealtimes • Regular outdoor activity © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Food Allergy (also called food- hypersensitivity reactions) and Intolerance Detecting Food Allergy • Immunologic response with the production of antibodies, histamines, and other defensive agents • 3-5% of children are diagnosed • Asymptomatic allergy produces antibodies without symptoms • Symptomatic allergy produces antibodies and symptoms © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Food Allergy and Intolerance Anaphylactic Shock • Life-threatening food allergy reaction • Foods may include eggs, milk, soy, peanuts, tree nuts, wheat, fish, and shellfish • Often outgrow allergies to eggs, milk, and soy • Recognize symptoms • Epinephrine injections (adrenalin) can be used to counteract anaphylactic shock. • Food labeling to identify common allergens and additives © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Food Allergy and Intolerance Food Labeling • Eight common allergens must appear on a food label. • If cross-contamination is possible, this must be stated on the label. Food Intolerances • Adverse reactions to foods like stomachaches, headaches, rapid pulse rate, nausea, wheezing, hives, bronchial irritation, coughs, and other discomforts are not all food allergies. • Symptoms without antibody production • A tolerance level for pesticides has been set based on the effects on development. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Percentage of children
classified as overweight © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Childhood Obesity Genetic and Environmental Factors • Parental obesity is a risk factor. Parents act as role models. • Poor diet and physical inactivity are risk factors. • Convenience foods and meals eaten away from home • Non-nutritious choices at school • Sedentary activities, e.g. watching television • Energy-dense soft drinks © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Childhood Obesity Growth • Grow taller at first, then stop growing at a shorter height • Greater bone and muscle mass to support weight, thus “stocky” appearance Physical Health • Abnormal blood lipid profile • Increases the risk for high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, and respiratory disease © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Childhood Obesity Psychological Development • Emotional and social problems • Stereotypes and discrimination Prevention and Treatment of Obesity • Integrated approach with diet, physical activity, psychological support, and behavioral changes • Begin early treatment – before adolescence © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Childhood Obesity Diet • Reduce rate of weight gain, rather than attempt weight loss • Strategies – Serve kcalorie-controlled family meals. – Involve children in shopping and preparing meals. – Encourage children to eat when hungry, eat slowly, enjoy food, and stop eating when full. – Teach them to select nutrient-dense foods. – Limit high-fat and high-sugar foods. – Never force children to clean plates. – Plan for nutritious snacks. – Discourage eating while watching television. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Childhood Obesity Physical Activity • Limit sedentary activities. • Encourage regular vigorous activity. • Parents need to set good examples. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Childhood Obesity Psychological Support • Weight-loss programs with parental involvement • Positive influence on eating behaviors Behavioral Changes • Focus on how to eat • Parental and media influence • Teaching consumer skills © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Mealtimes at Home – with parents as gatekeepers Honoring Children’s Preferences • Offer variety of foods • Fun mealtimes Learning through Participation • Help plan meals • Assist with food preparation © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Mealtimes at Home Avoiding Power Struggles • Children need to regulate their own food intakes. • Can determine their own likes and dislikes • Offer new foods at the beginning of meals and in small quantities. Choking Prevention • Be alert to foods that are common causes of choking. • Make sure children are sitting, not running or in danger of falling when eating. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Mealtimes at Home Playing First • Schedule outdoor play before meals. • Relax and take time while eating. Snacking • Teach how to snack • Limit access to concentrated sweets. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Mealtimes at Home Preventing Dental Caries • Brush and floss after meals. • Brush or rinse after snacks. • Avoid sticky foods. • Select crisp and fibrous foods. Serving as Role Models • Children learn through imitation of parents, older siblings, and care givers. • Help children to develop positive attitudes toward food and eating. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Nutrition at School Meals at School • Breakfast and lunch at a reasonable cost • Some free and reduced cost to low- income children • Offer variety of choices • 1/3 RDA for energy, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, iron, and calcium © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during Childhood •
Nutrition at School Competing Influences at School • Short lunch periods and long lines • Snack bars, school stores and vending machines • State laws and school policies © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during
Adolescence • Another rapid state of growth occurs during adolescence. • Nutrient needs rise, and iron and calcium are especially important. B • usy lifestyles make it challenging to meet nutrient needs and develop healthy habits. • Peer pressure is significant among adolescents. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during
Adolescence • Growth and Development Growth speeds up and continues for about 2 ½ years. Gender differences • Females begin puberty at 10-11 years of age, grow 6 inches taller, add fat, and gain about 35 pounds. • Males begin puberty at 12-13 years of age, grow 8 inches taller, add lean body mass, and gain 45 pounds. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during
Adolescence • Energy and Nutrient Needs Energy Intake and Activity • Needs vary depending on rate of growth, gender, body composition, and physical activity. • Energy needs can range from 1800 kcalories per day for an inactive female to 3500 kcalories per day for a highly active male. • Problems with overweight and obesity © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during
Adolescence • Energy and Nutrient Needs Vitamins • Needs for all vitamins increase • Vitamin D needs special attention because it allows for calcium absorption. Iron • Females’ needs increase because of menstruation. • Males’ needs increase because of developing lean body mass. • Iron deficiency is a concern. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during
Adolescence • Energy and Nutrient Needs Calcium • Crucial time for peak bone mass • Increase milk and milk products • Low calcium intakes and physical inactivity may cause problems with osteoporosis in later life. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during
Adolescence • Food Choices and Health Habits Snacks • Provide ¼ of daily energy intake • Favorite snacks are often high in fat and sodium and low in fiber. Beverages • Soft drinks replace fruit juices and milk. • Caffeine may be an issue. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during
Adolescence • Food Choices and Health Habits Eating Away from Home • 1/3 of meals are consumed away from home. • Influence of fast-food restaurants Peer influence is strong when making nutritional choices. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during
Adolescence • Problems Adolescents Face Marijuana • Enhances enjoyment of sweets • Affects appetite, pain and memory Cocaine • Stimulates nervous system • Elicits the stress response • Weight loss is common. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during
Adolescence • Problems Adolescents Face Ecstasy • Serotonin flooding alters mood; may also damage nerve cells and impair memory • Tend to lose weight Drug Abuse, in General • Use money to buy drugs, not food • Lose interest in foods • Use drugs that suppress appetite • Lifestyles fail to promote good eating • Infectious disease affects nutrition. • Medications to treat drug abuse alter nutrition status. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Nutrition during
Adolescence • Problems Adolescents Face Alcohol Abuse • Provides energy, no nutrients • Displaces nutritious foods from the diet • Alters nutrient absorption and metabolism Smoking • Eases feelings of hunger • Lower vitamin and fiber intakes • Increases needs for vitamin C • Need antioxidant fruits and vegetables to reduce cancer risk Smokeless tobacco has many drawbacks including cancer of the mouth. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Childhood Obesity and
the Early Development of Chronic Diseases © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Childhood Obesity and
the Early Development of Chronic Diseases • Nutrition and health education programs during childhood and adolescence are effective when combined with heart-healthy meals at home and school, fitness activities and parental involvement. • Cardiovascular disease (CVD) damages the heart. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Early Development of
Type 2 Diabetes • On the increase in recent years • Risk factors include obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and family history. • Insulin resistance • Increased blood cholesterol and blood pressure leading to atherosclerosis and CVD • Many complications leading to a shorter life span © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Early Development of
Heart Disease • Atherosclerosis Is often a part of cardiovascular disease Artery walls thicken with plaque Fatty streaks begin to accumulate in fibrous connective tissue Lesions in the arteries © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Early Development of
Heart Disease • Blood Cholesterol Tends to rise as dietary saturated fat increases Correlation with childhood obesity Family relationship Screening and education are key. • Blood Pressure May be a sign of underlying disease More common in obese children © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Physical Activity • Active
children have better lipid profiles. • Habits developed at this age are carried into later life. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Dietary Recommendations
for Children • Moderation, Not Deprivation Less saturated fat More fruits and vegetables Nuts, vegetable oils, and some fish provide essential fatty acids. • Treat problems with diet first, then drugs. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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Smoking • Increases risk
for heart disease • Half of teens who continue to smoke will die of smoking-related causes. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
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