Pulmonary Tuberculosis , tb, pulmonary disease, lung disorder, pathophysiology

1. Presented by: Dave Jay S. Manriquez RN.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Chest X-ray of a patient suffering from
tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or Tuberculosis) is a common and often deadly
infectious disease caused by mycobacteria, mainly Mycobacterium tuberculosis [1]. Tuberculosis usually attacks
the lungs (as pulmonary TB) but can also affect the central nervous system, the lymphatic system, the
circulatory system, the genitourinary system, the gastrointestinal system, bones, joints, and even the skin.
Other mycobacteria such as Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobacterium africanum, Mycobacterium canetti, and
Mycobacterium microti also cause tuberculosis, but these species are less common.
The classic symptoms of tuberculosis are a chronic cough with blood-tinged sputum, fever, night sweats, and
weight loss. Infection of other organs causes a wide range of symptoms. The diagnosis relies on radiology
(commonly chest X-rays), a tuberculin skin test, blood tests, as well as microscopic examination and
microbiological culture of bodily fluids. Tuberculosis treatment is difficult and requires long courses of multiple
antibiotics. Contacts are also screened and treated if necessary. Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem in
(extensively) multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis. Prevention relies on screening programs and vaccination,
usually with Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG vaccine).
Tuberculosis is spread through the air, when people who have the disease cough, sneeze, or spit. One third of
the world's current population have been infected with M. tuberculosis, and new infections occur at a rate of
one per second.[2] However, most of these cases will not develop the full-blown disease; asymptomatic, latent
infection is most common. About one in ten of these latent infections will eventually progress to active disease,
which, if left untreated, kills more than half of its victims. In 2004, mortality and morbidity statistics included 14.6
million chronic active cases, 8.9 million new cases, and 1.6 million deaths, mostly in developing countries.[2] In
addition, a rising number of people in the developed world are contracting tuberculosis because their immune
systems are compromised by immunosuppressive drugs, substance abuse, or AIDS. The distribution of
tuberculosis is not uniform across the globe with about 80% of the population in many Asian and African
countries testing positive in tuberculin tests, while only 5-10% of the US population testing positive.[1] It is
estimated that the US has 25,000 new cases of tuberculosis each year, 40% of which occur in immigrants from
countries where tuberculosis is endemic.

2. Main symptoms of
pulmonary
tuberculosis
When the disease
becomes active, 75%
of the cases are
pulmonary TB.
Symptoms include
chest pain, coughing
up blood, and a
productive, prolonged
cough for more than
three weeks.
Systemic symptoms
include fever, chills,
night sweats,
appetite loss, weight
loss, pallor, and often
a tendency to fatigue
very easily.[2]
Bacterial species
Main
article:
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Scanning electron micrograph of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
The primary cause of TB, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is an aerobic bacterium that divides every 16 to 20
hours, an extremely slow rate compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour. [9] (For
example, one of the fastest-growing bacteria is a strain of E. coli that can divide roughly every 20 minutes.)
Since MTB has a cell wall but lacks a phospholipid outer membrane, it is classified as a Gram-positive
bacterium. However, if a Gram stain is performed, MTB either stains very weakly Gram-positive or does not
retain dye due to the high lipid & mycolic acid content of its cell wall. [10] MTB is a small rod-like bacillus that can
withstand weak disinfectants and survive in a dry state for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can grow only within
the cells of a host organism, but M. tuberculosis can be cultured in vitro.

3. Using histological stains on expectorate samples from phlegm (also called sputum), scientists can identify MTB
under a regular microscope. Since MTB retains certain stains after being treated with acidic solution, it is
classified as an acid-fast bacillus (AFB).[1][10] The most common acid-fast staining technique, the Ziehl-Neelsen
stain, dyes AFBs a bright red that stands out clearly against a blue background. Other ways to visualize AFBs
include an auramine-rhodamine stain and fluorescent microscopy.
Transmission
When people suffering from active pulmonary TB cough, sneeze, speak, or spit, they expel infectious aerosol
droplets 0.5 to 5 µm in diameter. A single sneeze can release up to 40,000 droplets. Each one of these
droplets may transmit the disease, since the infectious dose of tuberculosis is very low and the inhalation of
just a single bacterium can cause a new infection.
People with prolonged, frequent, or intense contact are at particularly high risk of becoming infected, with an
estimated 22% infection rate. A person with active but untreated tuberculosis can infect 10–15 other people per
year.[2] Others at risk include people in areas where TB is common, people who inject drugs using unsanitary
needles, residents and employees of high-risk congregate settings, medically under-served and low-income
populations, high-risk racial or ethnic minority populations, children exposed to adults in high-risk categories,
patients immunocompromised by conditions such as HIV/AIDS, people who take immunosuppressant drugs,
and health care workers serving these high-risk clients.
Transmission can only occur from people with active — not latent — TB [1]. The probability of transmission from
one person to another depends upon the number of infectious droplets expelled by a carrier, the effectiveness
of ventilation, the duration of exposure, and the virulence of the M. tuberculosis strain. The chain of
transmission can, therefore, be broken by isolating patients with active disease and starting effective anti-
tuberculous therapy. After two weeks of such treatment, people with non-resistant active TB generally cease to
be contagious. If someone does become infected, then it will take at least 21 days, or three to four weeks,
before the newly infected person can transmit the disease to others. TB can also be transmitted by eating meat
infected with TB. Mycobacterium bovis causes TB in cattle. (See details below.)
Pathogenesis

4. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (stained red) in sputum
About 90% of those infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis have asymptomatic, latent TB infection
(sometimes called LTBI), with only a 10% lifetime chance that a latent infection will progress to TB disease. [1]
However, if untreated, the death rate for these active TB cases is more than 50%.[24]
TB infection begins when the mycobacteria reach the pulmonary alveoli, where they invade and replicate within
the endosomes of alveolar macrophages.[1][25] The primary site of infection in the lungs is called the Ghon focus,
and is generally located in either the upper part of the lower lobe, or the lower part of the upper lobe[1]. Bacteria
are picked up by dendritic cells, which do not allow replication, although these cells can transport the bacilli to
local (mediastinal) lymph nodes. Further spread is through the bloodstream to other tissues and organs where
secondary TB lesions can develop in other parts of the lung (particularly the apex of the upper lobes),
peripheral lymph nodes, kidneys, brain, and bone.[1][26] All parts of the body can be affected by the disease,
though it rarely affects the heart, skeletal muscles, pancreas and thyroid.[27]
Tuberculosis is classified as one of the granulomatous inflammatory conditions. Macrophages, T lymphocytes,
B lymphocytes and fibroblasts are among the cells that aggregate to form a granuloma, with lymphocytes
surrounding the infected macrophages. The granuloma functions not only to prevent dissemination of the
mycobacteria, but also provides a local environment for communication of cells of the immune system. Within
the granuloma, T lymphocytes (CD4+) secrete cytokines such as interferon gamma, which activates
macrophages to destroy the bacteria with which they are infected.[28] T lymphocytes (CD8+) can also directly kill
infected cells.[25]
Importantly, bacteria are not always eliminated within the granuloma, but can become dormant, resulting in a
latent infection.[1] Another feature of the granulomas of human tuberculosis is the development of cell death,
also called necrosis, in the center of tubercles. To the naked eye this has the texture of soft white cheese and
was termed caseous necrosis.[29]
If TB bacteria gain entry to the bloodstream from an area of damaged tissue they spread through the body and
set up many foci of infection, all appearing as tiny white tubercles in the tissues. This severe form of TB
disease is most common in infants and the elderly and is called miliary tuberculosis. Patients with this
disseminated TB have a fatality rate of approximately 20%, even with intensive treatment.[30]
In many patients the infection waxes and wanes. Tissue destruction and necrosis are balanced by healing and
fibrosis.[29] Affected tissue is replaced by scarring and cavities filled with cheese-like white necrotic material.
During active disease, some of these cavities are joined to the air passages bronchi and this material can be
coughed up. It contains living bacteria and can therefore pass on infection. Treatment with appropriate

5. antibiotics kills bacteria and allows healing to take place. Upon cure, affected areas are eventually replaced by
scar tissue.[29]
Diagnosis
Mantoux tuberculin skin test
Tuberculosis is diagnosed definitively by identifying the causative organism (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in a
clinical sample (for example, sputum or pus). When this is not possible, a probable diagnosis may be made
using imaging (X-rays or scans) and/or a tuberculin skin test.
The main problem with tuberculosis diagnosis is the difficulty in culturing this slow-growing organism in the
laboratory (it may take 4 to 12 weeks for blood or sputum culture). A complete medical evaluation for TB must
include a medical history, a physical examination, a chest X-ray, microbiological smears and cultures. It may
also include a tuberculin skin test, a serological test. The interpretation of the tuberculin skin test depends upon
the person's risk factors for infection and progression to TB disease, such as exposure to other cases of TB or
immunosuppression.
Currently, latent infection is diagnosed in a non-immunized person by a tuberculin skin test, which yields a
delayed hypersensitivity type response to an extract made from M. tuberculosis.[1] Those immunized for TB or
with past-cleared infection will respond with delayed hypersensitivity parallel to those currently in a state of
infection, so the test must be used with caution, particularly with regard to persons from countries where TB
immunization is common.[31] Tuberculin tests have the disadvantage in that they may produce false negatives,
especially when the patient is co-morbid with sarcoidosis, Hodgkins lymphoma, malnutrition, or most notably
active tuberculosis disease.[1] New TB tests are being developed that offer the hope of cheap, fast and more
accurate TB testing. These include polymerase chain reaction detection of bacterial DNA, and assays to detect
the release of interferon gamma in response to mycobacterial proteins such as ESAT-6.[32] These are not
affected by immunization or environmental mycobacteria, so generate fewer false positive results.[33] The
development of a rapid and inexpensive diagnostic test would be particularly valuable in the developing world.
[34]
Progression
Progression from TB infection to TB disease occurs when the TB bacilli overcome the immune system
defenses and begin to multiply. In primary TB disease—1–5% of cases—this occurs soon after infection.[1]
However, in the majority of cases, a latent infection occurs that has no obvious symptoms[1]. These dormant
bacilli can produce tuberculosis in 2–23% of these latent cases, often many years after infection.[35] The risk of
reactivation increases with immunosuppression, such as that caused by infection with HIV. In patients co-
infected with M. tuberculosis and HIV, the risk of reactivation increases to 10% per year.[1][24]

6. Patients with diabetes mellitus are at increased risk of contracting tuberculosis, and they have a poorer
response to treatment, possibly due to poorer drug absorption.
Treatment
Treatment for TB uses antibiotics to kill the bacteria. The two antibiotics most commonly used are rifampicin
and isoniazid. However, instead of the short course of antibiotics typically used to cure other bacterial
infections, TB requires much longer periods of treatment (around 6 to 12 months) to entirely eliminate
mycobacteria from the body.[8] Latent TB treatment usually uses a single antibiotic, while active TB disease is
best treated with combinations of several antibiotics, to reduce the risk of the bacteria developing antibiotic
resistance.[42] People with latent infections are treated to prevent them from progressing to active TB disease
later in life. However, treatment using Rifampicin and Pyrazinamide is not risk-free. The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) notified healthcare professionals of revised recommendations against the use of
rifampin plus pyrazinamide for treatment of latent tuberculosis infection, due to high rates of hospitalization and
death from liver injury associated with the combined use of these drugs.[43]
Drug resistant tuberculosis is transmitted in the same way as regular TB. Primary resistance occurs in persons
who are infected with a resistant strain of TB. A patient with fully-susceptible TB develops secondary resistance
(acquired resistance) during TB therapy because of inadequate treatment, not taking the prescribed regimen
appropriately, or using low quality medication.[42] Drug-resistant TB is a public health issue in many developing
countries, as treatment is longer and requires more expensive drugs. Multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB) is
defined as resistance to the two most effective first-line TB drugs: rifampicin and isoniazid. Extensively drug-
resistant TB (XDR-TB) is also resistant to three or more of the six classes of second-line drugs.[44] The DOTS
(Directly Observed Treatment Short-course) strategy of tuberculosis treatment based on clinical trials done in
the 1970s by Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India, focusing on a neglected area of infectious
disease control is now showing promising results in effectively treating all TB cases in the community.
Drugs
All first-line anti-tuberculous drug names have a standard three-letter and a single-letter abbreviation:
• ethambutol is EMB or E,
• isoniazid is INH or H,
• pyrazinamide is PZA or Z,
• rifampicin is RMP or R,
• Streptomycin is STM or S.
The US commonly uses abbreviations and names that are not internationally recognized: rifampicin is called
rifampin and abbreviated RIF; streptomycin is commonly abbreviated SM.
Drug regimens are similarly abbreviated in a standardized manner. The drugs are listed using their single
letter abbreviations (in the order given above, which is roughly the order of introduction into clinical practice). A
prefix denotes the number of months the treatment should be given for; a subscript denotes intermittent dosing
(so 3 means three times a week) and no subscript means daily dosing. Most regimens have an initial high-
intensity phase, followed by a continuation phase (also called a consolidation phase or eradication phase): the
high-intensity phase is given first, then the continuation phase, the two phases divided by a slash.
So, 2HREZ/4HR3 means isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol, pyrazinamide daily for two months, followed by four
months of isoniazid and rifampicin given three times a week.
These standard abbreviations are used in the rest of this article.
There are six classes of second-line drugs (SLDs) used for the treatment of TB. A drug may be classed as
second-line instead of first-line for one of two possible reasons: it may be less effective than the first-line drugs
(e.g., p-aminosalicylic acid); or, it may have toxic side-effects (e.g., cycloserine); or it may be unavailable in
many developing countries (e.g., fluoroquinolones):
• aminoglycosides: e.g., amikacin (AMK), kanamycin (KM);
• polypeptides: e.g., capreomycin, viomycin, enviomycin;

7. • fluoroquinolones: e.g., ciprofloxacin (CIP), levofloxacin, moxifloxacin (MXF);
• thioamides: e.g. ethionamide, prothionamide
• cycloserine (the only antibiotic in its class);
• p-aminosalicylic acid (PAS or P).
Other drugs that may be useful, but are not on the WHO list of SLDs:
• rifabutin
• macrolides: e.g., clarithromycin (CLR);
• linezolid (LZD);
• thioacetazone (T);
• thioridazinea;
• arginine;
• vitamin D;
• R207910.
These drugs may be considered quot;third-line drugsquot; and are listed here either because they are not very effective
(e.g., clarithromycin) or because their efficacy has not been proven (e.g., linezolid, R207910). Rifabutin is
effective, but is not included on the WHO list because for most developing countries, it is impractically
expensive.
Monitoring and DOTS
DOTS stands for quot;Directly Observed Therapy, Short-coursequot; and is a major plank in the WHO global TB
eradication programme. The DOTS strategy focuses on five main points of action. These include government
commitment to control TB, diagnosis based on sputum-smear microscopy tests done on patients who actively
report TB symptoms, direct observation short-course chemotherapy treatments, a definite supply of drugs, and
standardized reporting and recording of cases and treatment outcomes. The WHO advises that all TB patients
should have at least the first two months of their therapy observed (and preferably the whole of it observed):
this means an independent observer watching tuberculosis patients swallow their anti-TB therapy. The
independent observer is often not a healthcare worker and may be a shopkeeper or a tribal elder or similar
senior person within that society. DOTS is used with intermittent dosing (thrice weekly or 2HREZ/4HR3). Twice
weekly dosing is effective but not recommended by the WHO, because there is no margin for error
(accidentally omitting one dose per week results in once weekly dosing, which is ineffective).
Treatment with properly implemented DOTS has a success rate exceeding 95% and prevents the emergence
of further multi-drug resistant strains of tuberculosis. Administering DOTS, decreases the possibilities of
tuberculosis from reoccurring, resulting in a reduction in unsuccessful treatments. This is in part due to the fact
that areas without the DOTS strategy generally provide lower standards of care. Areas with DOTS
administration help lower the number of patients seeking help from other facilities where they are treated with
unknown treatments resulting in unknown outcomes. However if the DOTS program is not implemented or
done so incorrectly positive results will be unlikely. In order for the program to work efficiently and accurately
health providers must be fully engaged, links must be built between public and private practitioners, health
services must be available to all, and global support is provided to countries trying to reach their TB prevention,
and treatment aims.
Self-administered therapy (SAT), is another form of treatment for tuberculosis, however it does not have a
reliable efficiency rate. Patients receiving SAT are known to be negligent in completing their treatment
programs, resulting in relapses.
Some people recommend monthly surveillance until cultures convert to negative; this does not form any part of
the UK or WHO recommendations for TB. If cultures are positive or symptoms do not resolve after three
months of treatment, it is necessary to re-evaluate the patient for drug-resistant disease or nonadherence to
drug regimen. If cultures do not convert to negative despite three months of therapy, consider initiating directly
observed therapy.
Prevention

8. TB prevention and control takes two parallel approaches. In the first, people with TB and their contacts are
identified and then treated. Identification of infections often involves testing high-risk groups for TB. In the
second approach, children are vaccinated to protect them from TB. Unfortunately, no vaccine is available that
provides reliable protection for adults. However, in tropical areas where the levels of other species of
mycobacteria are high, exposure to nontuberculous mycobacteria gives some protection against TB.[45]
The World Health Organization (W.H.O.) declared TB a global health emergency in 1993, and the Stop TB
Partnership developed a Global Plan to Stop Tuberculosis that aims to save 14 million lives between 2006 and
2015.[46] Since humans are the only host of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, eradication would be possible: a goal
that would be helped greatly by an effective vaccine.[47]
Vaccines
Many countries use Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine as part of their TB control programs, especially for
infants. According to the W.H.O., this is the most often used vaccine worldwide, with 85% of infants in 172
countries immunized in 1993.[48] This was the first vaccine for TB and developed at the Pasteur Institute in
France between 1905 and 1921.[49] However, mass vaccination with BCG did not start until after World War II.
[50]
The protective efficacy of BCG for preventing serious forms of TB (e.g. meningitis) in children is greater than
80%; its protective efficacy for preventing pulmonary TB in adolescents and adults is variable, ranging from 0 to
80%.[51]
BCG provides some protection against severe forms of pediatric TB, but has been shown to be unreliable
against adult pulmonary TB, which accounts for most of the disease burden worldwide. Currently, there are
more cases of TB on the planet than at any other time in history and most agree there is an urgent need for a
newer, more effective vaccine that would prevent all forms of TB—including drug resistant strains—in all age
groups and among people with HIV.
Epidemiology
Annual number of new reported TB cases. Data from WHO.

9. World TB incidence. Cases per 100,000; Red => 300, orange = 200–300, yellow = 100–200, green = 50–100,
blue =< 50 and grey = n/a. Data from WHO, 2006[
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), nearly 2 billion people—one third of the world's population
—have been exposed to the tuberculosis pathogen.[61] Annually, 8 million people become ill with tuberculosis,
and 2 million people die from the disease worldwide.[62] In 2004, around 14.6 million people had active TB
disease with 9 million new cases. The annual incidence rate varies from 356 per 100,000 in Africa to 41 per
100,000 in the Americas.[2] Tuberculosis is the world's greatest infectious killer of women of reproductive age
and the leading cause of death among people with HIV/AIDS.
The rise in HIV infections and the neglect of TB control programs have enabled a resurgence of tuberculosis.
The emergence of drug-resistant strains has also contributed to this new epidemic with, from 2000 to 2004,
20% of TB cases being resistant to standard treatments and 2% resistant to second-line drugs. The rate at
which new TB cases occur varies widely, even in neighboring countries, apparently because of differences in
health care systems.
In 2005, the country with the highest estimated incidence of TB was Swaziland, with 1262 cases per 100,000
people. India has the largest number of infections, with over 1.8 million cases. In developed countries,
tuberculosis is less common and is mainly an urban disease. In the United Kingdom, TB incidences range from
40 per 100,000 in London to less than 5 per 100,000 in the rural South West of England; the national average
is 13 per 100,000. The highest rates in Western Europe are in Portugal (31.1 per 100,000 in 2005) and Spain
(20 per 100,000). These rates compare with 113 per 100,000 in China and 64 per 100,000 in Brazil. In the
United States, the overall tuberculosis case rate was 4.9 per 100,000 persons in 2004.[62] In Canada
tuberculosis is still endemic in rural areas.
The incidence of TB varies with age. In Africa, TB primarily affects adolescents and young adults. However, in
countries where TB has gone from high to low incidence, such as the United States, TB is mainly a disease of
older people, or of the immunocompromised.
There are a number of known factors that make people more susceptible to TB infection: worldwide the most
important of these is HIV. Co-infection with HIV is a particular problem in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to the high
incidence of HIV in these countries.[60][71] Smoking more than 20 cigarettes a day also increases the risk of TB
by two to four times. Diabetes mellitus is also an important risk factor that is growing in importance in
developing countries.[74] Other disease states that increase the risk of developing tuberculosis are Hodgkin
lymphoma, end-stage renal disease, chronic lung disease, malnutrition, and alcoholism.
Diet may also modulate risk. For example, among immigrants in London from the Indian subcontinent,
vegetarian Hindu Asians were found to have an 8.5 fold increased risk of tuberculosis, compared to Muslims
who ate meat and fish daily. Although a causal link is not proved by this data, his increased risk could be
caused by micronutrient deficiencies: possibly iron, vitamin B12 or vitamin D. Further studies have provided
more evidence of a link between vitamin D deficiency and an increased risk of contracting tuberculosis

10. Globally, the severe malnutrition common in parts of the developing world causes a large increase in the risk of
developing active tuberculosis, due to its damaging effects on the immune system Along with overcrowding,
poor nutrition may contribute to the strong link observed between tuberculosis and poverty
Tuberculosis treatment
Various pharmaceutical tuberculosis treatments and their actions
Active tuberculosis will kill about two of every three people affected if left untreated. Treated tuberculosis has a
mortality rate of less than 5% (or less in developed countries where intensive supportive measures are
available).
The standard quot;shortquot; course treatment for tuberculosis (TB), is isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and
ethambutol for two months, then isoniazid and rifampicin alone for a further four months. The patient is
considered cured at six months (although there is still a relapse rate of 2 to 3%). For latent tuberculosis, the
standard treatment is six to nine months of isoniazid alone.
If the organism is known to be fully sensitive, then treatment is with isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide for
two months, followed by isoniazid and rifampicin for four months. Ethambutol need not be used.
Current Surgical Intervention for Pulmonary Tuberculosis
The paper is aimed at determining the current role of surgery as well as morbidity and late outcome after
surgical intervention.
• Multidrug resistance: resistance to both Isoniazid and Rifampin.
• Incompleteness of initial anti-TB treatment, infection with human immunodeficiency virus, and
intravenous drug abuse were speculated to enhance to multidrug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) in
the western countries.
Method
Six patients with hemoptysis first received bronchial artery embolization; however, surgery was indicated
because of the recurrent hemoptysis. One patient who had positive smear and destroyed left lung was
regarded as a surgical candidate.
• Each patient was shown to have localized disease with adequate pulmonary functional reserve before
being considered as a surgical candidate in general.
• In particular MDR-TB patients, 4 were new cases, and 22 were retreatment cases. The retreatment
cases had higher prevalence of MDR-TB than those in initial treatment cases.
• All MDR-TB patients showed sputum smear positive at first presentation; however, with vigorous
second line individualized chemotherapy with cycloserine, ethionamide, and floroquinolones
(levofloxacin, ofloxacin, and sparfloxiacin), 10 patients become smear negative.
• Even in the sputum smear negative MRD-TB patients, a radiologically persistent fibrous cavitation,
suggesting no improvements, were regarded as indications for surgery.
• Postoperatively the patients were scheduled to have an intensive antituberculosis chemotherapy
regimen for at least 6 months.
• Postoperative medical therapy was performed for a mean duration of 1.8 years (range, 6 months to 7
years) in all patients.
• In particular, MDR-TB patients were scheduled to be treated for 18 to 24 months using second line
chemotherapy, which was determined by the sputum culture.
Result
• The success groups were those patients who showed negative sputum smear and culture without
further therapy after surgery.
• The unfavorable group included those who showed positive sputum smear results postoperatively,
operation related death, or reoperation for TB related sequelae.
• The number of sensitive drugs did not affect the postoperative outcome in patients with MDR-TB.
Overall, 32 of 35 (91.4%) patients including 23 of 26 (88.5%) of the MDR-TB patients remained free of
TB following surgery.

11. • Hilar dissection may pose significant problems.
• Excessive bleeding. <Blood loss for TB surgery was 3 times larger than that during lung cancer
surgery (557 mL vs 164 mL).>
• Medical problems including poor nutrition may affect the risks of surgery.
Conclusion
• Current indication of lung resection for pulmonary tuberculosis includes MDR-TB with a poor
response to medical therapy, hemoptysis due to bronchiectasis or Aspergillus superinfection, and
destroyed lung as previously reported, which are consistent with our indications.
• Surgery remains a crucial adjunct to medical therapy for the treatment of MDR-TB and medical failure
lesions.
• Treatment success was obtained in cases with MDR-TB with few and incomplete sensitive drugs, and
the early morbidity and mortality were acceptable in the current series.
• Besides, vigorous individualized perioperative chemotherapy should be done.
Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Griffith_1996-21#cite_note-Griffith_1996-21