2. It
is learning a second
language after a first
language is already
established.
3. Language
spoken at home
Amount of opportunity to
practice the second language
Internal motivation of the
learner
Reason that the second
language is needed.
4. By
setting
By topic
By speaker
NOTE: The ability of the a person to use a second language will depend on
his/her family‟s ability to speak more than one language. It is important
for parents to provide a strong language model.
5. Let us have the following questions?
Is the nature of second language learning similar or
different to first language acquisition?
Does the child bring something different to the
process of second language acquisition?
Is the linguistic environment the same for both first
and second language acquisition?
6. Case 1
D is a boy growing up in Singapore. His father is
Malaysian Chinese. The father spoke Malay and
English as a child, but he rarely uses Malay now.
His mother is monolingual English. The family
speaks English at home. When D entered primary
school at age 7, he began to take Malay classes. He
sometimes asks his father about vocabulary, but
his father isn‟t much help with the type of
homework given by the school. His mother doesn‟t
know much Malay, but she is taking a few Malay
classes in the evening.
8. PHONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
Children begin to acquire an inventory of speech sounds from an early
age.(L1) Nevertheless, it isn‟t until they reach early primary school(8) when
they can produce most of the adult sounds and blends of the English
language.(L2).
In general pre- school children cannot maintain all the adult phonetic
contrasts but they have systematic ways of reducing adult pronunciation
of words to forms
which are within their capabilities.
Besides developing the ability to pronounce individual sounds(segmental
features)children also begin to adopt the pitch movements in adult speakers
intonation. In fact intonation develops pre verbally- that is even before
children produce intelligible words , they may imitate pitch movements they
hear in adult speech.
Finer details of intonation and stress patterns develop more gradually into
the primary school years.
10. PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS &
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS
Phonological
awareness
and
metalinguistic awareness are closely
associated. As children develop an
awareness
of
language
as
an
abstraction, one part of their awareness
is that different sounds make up words.
This include phonemic awareness as
well as other areas of phonology.
11. PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS &
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS
At a simplest level phonemic awareness
means that the child becomes aware that
words are made up of individual
sounds(Morrow,2001,p.142). As
phonemic awareness develops, children
realize that the word „bug” has three
sounds: /b/, /^/, /g/. When reading or
hearing the children‟s story, A bug, a
Bear and a Boy (McPhail, 1998) for
example, they realize that these key
words all start with the same sound,/b/.
12. PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS &
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS
Phonemic awareness is often considered to be an
important pre- reading behavior and is
strengthened through phonics instruction. It can
be developed through language play, through rereading children‟s books that make use of
alteration and rhyme, and through discussing
graphophonemic cues during child-adult shared
reading. Phonemic awareness is simply hearing
that there are different sounds in words and
being able to segment the sounds, say them and
then blend them together. It helps children to
grasp a basic literacy concepts of alphabetic
languages such as English. Sounds can be written
down with letters
14. PHONEME SEGMENTATION
If you take /p/ form „pit‟, you
have „it‟
And if you take /p/ from „pin‟,
you have „in‟
However, if you take /p/ from
„pain‟ you have______?
15. MORPHOPHONEMIC RULES
Morphophonemic rules are linguistic rules
that
address
connections
between
morphology and phonology. For example,
„long‟ is one syllable; adding the morpheme
„er‟ makes it „longer‟- two syllables. Also,
there is a change in the final consonant
sound in order to make the second syllable
distinct. Thus the final sound, the syllable
structure, and even the meaning undergo a
systematic
change
that
is
part
of
„morphophonemics‟.
16. MORPHOPHONEMIC RULES
Children also starts to learn when word
segments are meaningful as
part of
phonological awareness:
A child begins to
learn the distinctions
before primary school, and continues
development in this area through the primary
school years.
17. MORPHOPHONEMIC RULES
Development of phonological awareness is
helpful for early literacy skills as it facilitates
an understanding that letters can represent
sounds, a crucial concepts for beginning
literacy in alphabetic language.
18. What makes a successful beginner
reader?
will need to have skills in letter recognition,
phoneme segmentation, and word
recognition, in order to be able to map
letters onto appropriate phonetic units, to
blend the phoneme segments into words,
and then to connect the “sounded out” word
to the appropriate meaning.( Snow,Tabors,
Nicholson & Kurland, 1995,p.37)
21. RHYMING
Ex.1
In the story, George is unhappy with the way he looks and so he decides
to make a change. A child and her tutor are discussing the story.
T : (reading)So George decided there was only one thing to do. He
would have to change his shape. “I‟m going to be slim, and I‟m going to
be trim, and then my shape won‟t be so grim!” he said. Look at the
words on this page .Can you tell me which are the words that sound the
same?
C:
Slim, trim,
T:
yes, well done. “S L I M slim. T R I M trim.” Any more words which
you can identify?
C:
T:
C:
And “ Grim”
That‟s right. “G R I M grim. Shall we say the words together again
Slim, trim , grim,
23. ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE
Form- can be described as the structure of language or the „what‟ of
language. Talking about form requires a metalanguage -meta means
beyond , a language about language.
Meaning- The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. In
semantics the focus is mostly on meaning which is relatively fixed and
does not vary with content.
Conceptual meaning (denotative)-is what a word refers to or denotes ,
such as person , thing or event. For example man means an adult who is
not a female.
Connotative meaning (associative)-is when a word has an additional sense
that is beyond its conceptual meaning.
Use- The study of the use of language in society and the myriad factors
that influence it is called Pragmatics.
24. ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE
ASPECTS OF
LANGUAGE FORM
FORM
MORPHOLOGY
MORPHEMES
WORDS
SYNTAX
PHRASES
CLAUSES
PHONOLOGY
PHONEMES
SYLLABLES
PROMINENCE
TONE
25. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN
PRIMARY SCHOOL YEARS
MORPHOLOGY
Morphology is the study of morphemes and the way they combine to form
words. A morpheme can be define as the smallest meaningful unit in a
language .Ex. The word „unwillingly‟ is formed from 4 morphemes: un +
will + ing + ly.
SYNTAX
Is the way words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern
those combinations.
Syntactical structures in a language are arrangements of words into larger
units called phrases, clauses and sentences.
PHONOLOGY
Involves describing the sound patterns of language. (beginning with
phonemes, syllables, prominence, tone)
Phonemes- is the smallest sound segment which can differentiate
meanings.
26. 3 Important areas of the development of language form (L2)
(morphemes, syntax, phonology)
All 3 areas(morphemes, syntax and phonology) are interdependent.
Development in phonology for example will influence morpheme
acquisition which will in turn have an effect on the development of
syntax.
The order and the age of mastery of various language forms reflect
a child‟s cognitive and social growth. By age 4 or 5, most will have
acquired basic morphological and syntactic form. They will
also have acquired many of the phonemic contrasts in adult
pronunciation.
They will also develop further in morphophonemic and stress and
intonation patterns.
27. 3 Important areas of the development of language form (L2)
(morphemes, syntax, phonology)
explAIN
PHOtograph
Not always
POIson
HAPpy
explaNAtion
photoGRAphic
POIsonous
unHAPpy
28. 3 Important areas of the development of language form (L2)
(morphemes, syntax, phonology)
Tongue twisters, like the one below, can be even more challenging for
children in primary school.
There was a fisherman named Fisher
who fished for some fish in a fissure
Till a fish with a grin,
Pulled the fisherman in,
Now they‟re fishing the fissure for Fisher!
29. Language Development in the Secondary School Years
Morphology-their development in derivational morphology continues
throughout secondary school.
Syntax- Syntactically, they process and produce compound complex&
passive sentences with greater accuracy.
Semantics- semantically, they become more accurate in their
understanding and precise in their use of word. They multiple
meanings for the same word and also learn many synonyms.
Pragmatics- in terms of pragmatics have acquired some degree of
competence in conversation, speech acts, narratives or social
monologues.
30. Phonological Development in Secondary School
Phonologically- they learn to vary word stress patterns according to the
types of derivational morphemes. They are also able to vary their
intonation forPragmatic purposes.
31. Learner language
Learner language is the written or spoken
language produced by a learner. It is also the
main type of data used in second-language
acquisition research.[Much research in secondlanguage acquisition is concerned with the
internal representations of a language in the
mind of the learner, and in how those
representations change over time.
32. Two Types of Learning that Second-language
Learners are engage in
ITEM learning, or the learning of formulaic
chunks of language. These chunks can be
individual words, set phrases, or formulas like
Can I have a ___?
___? The second kind of learning is SYSTEM
learning, or the learning of systematic rules.
34. Three Different Processes of
Interlanguage
Language transfer. Learners fall back on their mother tongue to
help create their language system. This is now recognized not as a
mistake, but as a process that all learners go through.
Overgeneralization. Learners use rules from the second language
in a way that native speakers would not. For example, a learner
may say "I goed home", overgeneralizing the English rule of adding
-ed to create past tense verb forms.
Simplification. Learners use a highly simplified form of language,
similar to speech by children or in pidgins. This may be related to
linguistic universals.
35. Language transfer
One important difference between firstlanguage acquisition and second-language
acquisition is that the process of secondlanguage acquisition is influenced by languages
that the learner already knows. This influence is
known as language transfer.[22] Language
transfer is a complex phenomenon resulting
from interaction between learners‟ prior
linguistic knowledge, the target-language input
they encounter, and their cognitive processes.
36. External Factors
The primary factor affecting language acquisition appears to be the
input that the learner receives. Stephen Krashen took a very strong
position on the importance of input, asserting that comprehensible
input
is
all
that
is
necessary
for
second-language
acquisition.Krashen pointed to studies showing that the length of
time a person stays in a foreign country is closely linked with his
level of language acquisition. Further evidence for input comes
from studies on reading: large amounts of free voluntary reading
have a significant positive effect on learners' vocabulary, grammar,
and writing. Input is also the mechanism by which people learn
languages according to the universal grammar model.[
37. Social Aspects
Three Types of Social Structure
Socialinguistic setting
-the role of the second language in society
Specific social factors
-acquisition include age, gender, social class, and ethnic
identity, with ethnic identity being the one that has received
most research attention.
Situational factors
--those which vary between each social interaction. For
example, a learner may use more polite language when
talking to someone of higher social status, but more
informal language when talking with friends.
38. Internal Factors
Internal factors affecting second-language acquisition are those
which stem from the learner's own mind.
three general strands:
cognitive,
sociocultural
linguistic.
39. Cognitive Approaches
Cognitive research is concerned with the mental processes
involved in language acquisition, and how they can explain the
nature of learners' language knowledge.
The dominant model in cognitive approaches to secondlanguage acquisition, and indeed in all second-language
acquisition research, is the computational model. The
computational model involves three stages. In the first stage,
learners retain certain features of the language input in short-term
memory. (This retained input is known as intake.) Then, learners
convert some of this intake into second-language knowledge,
which is stored in long-term memory. Finally, learners use this
second-language knowledge to produce spoken output.
40. Sociocultural Approaches
, it is a theory of mind and not of general
social explanations of language acquisition.
According to Ellis, "It is important to
recognize ... that this paradigm, despite the
label 'sociocultural' does not seek to explain
how learners acquire the cultural values of
the L2 but rather how knowledge of an L2 is
internalized through experiences of a
sociocultural nature."
41. Linguistic approaches
consider language knowledge to be unique
and distinct from any other type of
knowledge.
Two main strands of research can be
identified
in
the
linguistic
tradition:
approaches informed by universal grammar,
and typological approaches.
42. Linguistic approaches
Typological universals are principles that hold for all
the world's languages.
The theory of universal grammar was proposed by
Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, and has enjoyed
considerable popularity in the field of linguistics. It is
a narrowly-focused theory that only concentrates on
describing the linguistic competence of an individual,
as opposed to mechanisms of learning. It consists of
a set of principles, which are universal and constant,
and a set of parameters, which can be set differently
for different languages.
43. Individual variation
There is considerable variation in the rate at which
people learn second languages, and in the language
level that they ultimately reach. Some learners learn
quickly and reach a near-native level of competence,
but others learn slowly and get stuck at relatively
early stages of acquisition, despite living in the
country where the language is spoken for several
years.
44. Affective Factors
The learner's attitude to the learning process has also
been identified as being critically important to
second-language acquisition.
Age
According to some researchers, the defining
difference between a first language (L1) and a second
language (L2) is the age the person learned the
language.
45. Affective Factors
The learner's attitude to the learning process has also
been identified as being critically important to
second-language acquisition.
Age
According to some researchers, the defining
difference between a first language (L1) and a second
language (L2) is the age the person learned the
language.
