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Supply, Demand, and Government Policies
1.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western 66Supply, Demand, and Government Policies
2.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning Supply, Demand, and Government Policies • In a free, unregulated market system, market forces establish equilibrium prices and exchange quantities. • While equilibrium conditions may be efficient, it may be true that not everyone is satisfied. • One of the roles of economists is to use their theories to assist in the development of policies.
3.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning CONTROLS ON PRICES • Are usually enacted when policymakers believe the market price is unfair to buyers or sellers. • Result in government-created price ceilings and floors.
4.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning CONTROLS ON PRICES • Price Ceiling • A legal maximum on the price at which a good can be sold. • Price Floor • A legal minimum on the price at which a good can be sold.
5.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning How Price Ceilings Affect Market Outcomes • Two outcomes are possible when the government imposes a price ceiling: • The price ceiling is not binding if set above the equilibrium price. • The price ceiling is binding if set below the equilibrium price, leading to a shortage.
6.
Figure 1 A
Market with a Price Ceiling (a) A Price Ceiling That Is Not Binding Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones 0 Price of Ice-Cream Cone Equilibrium quantity $4 Price ceiling Equilibrium price Demand Supply 3 100
7.
Figure 1 A
Market with a Price Ceiling Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning (b) A Price Ceiling That Is Binding Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones 0 Price of Ice-Cream Cone Demand Supply 2 Price ceilingShortage 75 Quantity supplied 125 Quantity demanded Equilibrium price $3
8.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning How Price Ceilings Affect Market Outcomes • Effects of Price Ceilings • A binding price ceiling creates • shortages because QD > QS. • Example: Gasoline shortage of the 1970s • nonprice rationing • Examples: Long lines, discrimination by sellers
9.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning • In 1973, OPEC raised the price of crude oil in world markets. Crude oil is the major input in gasoline, so the higher oil prices reduced the supply of gasoline. • What was responsible for the long gas lines? CASE STUDY: Lines at the Gas Pump • Economists blame government regulations that limited the price oil companies could charge for gasoline.
10.
Figure 2 The
Market for Gasoline with a Price Ceiling Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning (a) The Price Ceiling on Gasoline Is Not Binding Quantity of Gasoline 0 Price of Gasoline 1. Initially, the price ceiling is not binding . . . Price ceiling Demand Supply,S1 P1 Q1
11.
Figure 2 The
Market for Gasoline with a Price Ceiling Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning (b) The Price Ceiling on Gasoline Is Binding Quantity of Gasoline 0 Price of Gasoline Demand S1 S2 Price ceiling QS 4. . . . resulting in a shortage. 3. . . . the price ceiling becomes binding . . . 2. . . . but when supply falls . . . P2 QD P1 Q1
12.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning CASE STUDY: Rent Control in the Short Run and Long Run • Rent controls are ceilings placed on the rents that landlords may charge their tenants. • The goal of rent control policy is to help the poor by making housing more affordable. • One economist called rent control “the best way to destroy a city, other than bombing.”
13.
Figure 3 Rent
Control in the Short Run and in the Long Run Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning (a) Rent Control in the Short Run (supply and demand are inelastic) Quantity of Apartments 0 Supply Controlled rent Rental Price of Apartment Demand Shortage
14.
Figure 3 Rent
Control in the Short Run and in the Long Run Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning (b) Rent Control in the Long Run (supply and demand are elastic) 0 Rental Price of Apartment Quantity of Apartments Demand Supply Controlled rent Shortage
15.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning How Price Floors Affect Market Outcomes • When the government imposes a price floor, two outcomes are possible. • The price floor is not binding if set below the equilibrium price. • The price floor is binding if set above the equilibrium price, leading to a surplus.
16.
Figure 4 A
Market with a Price Floor Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning (a) A Price Floor That Is Not Binding Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones 0 Price of Ice-Cream Cone Equilibrium quantity 2 Price floor Equilibrium price Demand Supply $3 100
17.
Figure 4 A
Market with a Price Floor Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning (b) A Price Floor That Is Binding Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones 0 Price of Ice-Cream Cone Demand Supply $4 Price floor 80 Quantity demanded 120 Quantity supplied Equilibrium price Surplus 3
18.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning How Price Floors Affect Market Outcomes • A price floor prevents supply and demand from moving toward the equilibrium price and quantity. • When the market price hits the floor, it can fall no further, and the market price equals the floor price.
19.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning How Price Floors Affect Market Outcomes • A binding price floor causes . . . • a surplus because QS > QD. • nonprice rationing is an alternative mechanism for rationing the good, using discrimination criteria. • Examples: The minimum wage, agricultural price supports
20.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning The Minimum Wage • An important example of a price floor is the minimum wage. Minimum wage laws dictate the lowest price possible for labor that any employer may pay.
21.
Figure 5 How
the Minimum Wage Affects the Labor Market Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Quantity of Labor Wage 0 Labor demand Labor Supply Equilibrium employment Equilibrium wage
22.
Figure 5 How
the Minimum Wage Affects the Labor Market Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Quantity of Labor Wage 0 Labor SupplyLabor surplus (unemployment) Labor demand Minimum wage Quantity demanded Quantity supplied
23.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning TAXES • Governments levy taxes to raise revenue for public projects.
24.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning How Taxes on Buyers (and Sellers) Affect Market Outcomes • Taxes discourage market activity. • When a good is taxed, the quantity sold is smaller. • Buyers and sellers share the tax burden.
25.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning Elasticity and Tax Incidence • Tax incidence is the manner in which the burden of a tax is shared among participants in a market.
26.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning Elasticity and Tax Incidence • Tax incidence is the study of who bears the burden of a tax. • Taxes result in a change in market equilibrium. • Buyers pay more and sellers receive less, regardless of whom the tax is levied on.
27.
Figure 6 A
Tax on Buyers Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones 0 Price of Ice-Cream Cone Price without tax Price sellers receive Equilibrium without tax Tax ($0.50) Price buyers pay D1 D2 Supply,S1 A tax on buyers shifts the demand curve downward by the size of the tax ($0.50). $3.30 90 Equilibrium with tax 2.80 3.00 100
28.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning Elasticity and Tax Incidence • What was the impact of tax? • Taxes discourage market activity. • When a good is taxed, the quantity sold is smaller. • Buyers and sellers share the tax burden.
29.
Figure 7 A
Tax on Sellers Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning 2.80 Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones 0 Price of Ice-Cream Cone Price without tax Price sellers receive Equilibrium with tax Equilibrium without tax Tax ($0.50) Price buyers pay S1 S2 Demand,D1 A tax on sellers shifts the supply curve upward by the amount of the tax ($0.50). 3.00 100 $3.30 90
30.
Figure 8 A
Payroll Tax Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Quantity of Labor 0 Wage Labor demand Labor supply Tax wedge Wage workers receive Wage firms pay Wage without tax
31.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning Elasticity and Tax Incidence • In what proportions is the burden of the tax divided? • How do the effects of taxes on sellers compare to those levied on buyers? • The answers to these questions depend on the elasticity of demand and the elasticity of supply.
32.
Figure 9 How
the Burden of a Tax Is Divided Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Quantity0 Price Demand Supply Tax Price sellers receive Price buyers pay (a) Elastic Supply, Inelastic Demand 2. . . . the incidence of the tax falls more heavily on consumers . . . 1. When supply is more elastic than demand . . . Price without tax 3. . . . than on producers.
33.
Figure 9 How
the Burden of a Tax Is Divided Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Quantity0 Price Demand Supply Tax Price sellers receive Price buyers pay (b) Inelastic Supply, Elastic Demand 3. . . . than on consumers. 1. When demand is more elastic than supply . . . Price without tax 2. . . . the incidence of the tax falls more heavily on producers . . .
34.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning So, how is the burden of the tax divided? • The burden of a tax falls more heavily on the side of the market that is less elastic. ELASTICITY AND TAX INCIDENCE
35.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning Summary • Price controls include price ceilings and price floors. • A price ceiling is a legal maximum on the price of a good or service. An example is rent control. • A price floor is a legal minimum on the price of a good or a service. An example is the minimum wage.
36.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning Summary • Taxes are used to raise revenue for public purposes. • When the government levies a tax on a good, the equilibrium quantity of the good falls. • A tax on a good places a wedge between the price paid by buyers and the price received by sellers.
37.
Copyright © 2004
South-Western/Thomson Learning Summary • The incidence of a tax refers to who bears the burden of a tax. • The incidence of a tax does not depend on whether the tax is levied on buyers or sellers. • The incidence of the tax depends on the price elasticities of supply and demand. • The burden tends to fall on the side of the market that is less elastic.
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