Educational Psychology

1. Memory
anivpknr@gmail.com

2. Memory is our ability to encode, store,retain and
subsequently recall information and past experiences
in the human brain.
Ryburn defines memory as “the power we have
to store our experiences and to bring them
into the field of consciousness sometimes
after the experiences have occurred”
The process of memorization , can not be viewed
merely in terms of reproduction or revival of past
experiences or learning. It is quite a complex process
which involves factors like learning, retention, recall
and recognition .

3.  Memory is the sum total of what we remember,
and gives us the capability to learn and adapt
from previous experiences as well as to build
relationships.
 It is the ability to remember past experiences,
and the power or process of recalling to mind
previously learned facts, experiences,
impressions, skills and habits.

4.  Our mind possesses a special ability by which
every experience or learning leaves behind
memory images or traces which are conserved in
the forms of engrams .
 Thus what is learned leaves its after effect which
is conserved in the form of engrams composed of
memory traces. This preservation of the memory
traces by our central nervous system or brain is
known as retention of the learned or experienced
act

5. Learning
Memory depends upon learning. It is not possible to
keep memorized any thing without learning.
Learning by understanding and learning
mechanically have significance in learning.
Retention
Keeping the learnt things in the rain is its retention.
If the retention power of a person is weaken, his
related memory also weaken. There are found
individual difference in the retention power

6. Recall
Remembering a prior experience is its recall. Recall
is such a mental process by which we bring to our
present consciousness the past incidents and
experiences without presenting a physical stimuli.
Recall classified into two:
Natural or Dispositional : Natural recall occurs by
itself when we let the thought flow freely, any
thought can come to the mind.
Reflective or Deliberative : here the thought occur
to the mind on making effort. Eg. student
recall the answer pertaining to the question given
to the question paper.

7. Recognition
It is a mental process by which an individual
separates or distinguishes recognized objects and
places from unknown objects and places from a
new objects or places.
Recognition is the completeness of memory

8. Here is a simplified description of how memory works:
 Encoding: the information gets
into our brains in a way that
allows it to be stored
 Storage: the information is held in
a way that allows it to later be
retrieved
 Retrieval: reactivating and
recalling the information,
producing it in a form similar to
what was encoded
Encodin
g
Storage
Retrieva
l

9.  Encoding is based on perception and is the first
step to creating a memory.
 The strength of the memory depends on how much
attention is paid to the stimuli.
 During encoding memories are developed in the
hippocampus by using the language of electricity
and chemicals.
 When we create new memories with words and
images it adds strength to our encoding abilities.

10. LIONLION BEARBEAR PIGPIG
COWCOW CHICKENCHICKEN BIRDBIRD
ELEPHANTELEPHANT GIRAFFEGIRAFFE DOGDOG

11.  Which of the following words was not on the list?
 A. Lion
 B. Chicken
 C. Elephant
 D. Tiger
 E. Dog

12. HATEHATE IRATEIRATE HAPPYHAPPY
MADMAD FURIOUSFURIOUS MEANMEAN
CALMCALM ENRAGEDENRAGED FUMINGFUMING

14.  Storage is the process of
retaining the information
gathered in the initial stages of
encoding.
 Memory storage is made up of
three memory systems:
sensory memory, short-term
memory, and long-term
memory.
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study
_guide/Memory-
Storage.topicArticleId-
25438,articleId-25419.html
 Sensory memory extends the
duration of the perception of
stimuli long enough that they
can be recognized,
transformed (encoded), and
relayed to conscious
awareness.
 Short-term memory (STM) has
a limited duration (15 to 30
seconds) and a limited
capacity, believed to be about
seven pieces of information.
 Long-term memory (LTM) has
an unlimited capacity and a
very long duration; it is virtually
limitless

15.  Retrieval is the process
of getting information
out of memory.
 Retrieval cues are
stimuli that can be used
to help retrieve
memories.
 Priming is the process
of identifying that lead
to a memory.

16.  Memory: Active system that receives, stores,
organizes, alters, and recovers (retrieves)
information
 Encoding: Converting information into a useable
form
 Storage: Holding this information in memory for
later use
 Retrieval: Taking memories out of storage

17. Types/ Kinds of memory
Habit Memory and True Memory
Habit memory is depends upon mere motor
mechanism and the true memory depends on
independent recollections
Immediate memory : Here we learn and
remember a thing for a short time and forget it
Permanent memory: Here retention is of a
permanent nature. It is also known as stable
memory. Here we memories things for a
lifetime/long time
Rote memory: Here things are learned without
understanding their meaning

18. Active memory : when we are able to bring the past
experience to the upper level of consciousness
with effort , it is called active memory
Passive memory : when our past experiences
surface to the upper level of consciousness
without any effort, it is called passive memory
Logical memory: materials are learned with
insight, understanding and logical thinking is
known as logical memory
Associate memory: Here the individual associate
newly learned things so many related things
existing in the memory and then establish a
multiple connections

19.  Immediate understanding
 Immediate recall
 Immediate recognition
 Stability of recognition
 Forgetting useless things

20.  Stages of Memory
 According to the most acceptable model of memory, there are
three major systems of memory :
 The Sensory Memory;
 Short-term memory(STM), and
 Long-Term Memory(LTM).
 Information moves successively through these three systems,
if attention is given to the material. If attention (focused
awareness) is not given, information does not move further
into the system.

21. Methods of Memory
Whole method
Under this method the whole subject matter is learnt at a time.
Under this method the lesson is read from beginning to end
repeatedly. This method is quite useful for smaller lessons
Part method
Here the subject matter is divided into separate parts. Eg
learning long poetry in parts. This method is simple and
convenient
Break/interval method
Here the subject matter is learnt by taking intervals . Learning
things over long time continuously may weaken memory. It
relaxes the mind and readies learning.

22. Continuous Method
Under this method the whole subject matter is memorized in
one sitting without giving a break in between.
This method is effective for immediate memory
Active method
Under this method the subject matter is memorized by
speaking loudly . This method is more beneficial for children.
Passive method
Under this method the subject matter is learnt silently.
Association method
Here the subject matter is correlated to any other important
subject matter , by which there are less chance of forgetting
the subject matter.

23. Learning by activity
Here the subject matter is learned through an
activity by which all senses of the child become
active and it helps to memorize easily and
conveniently.
Repetition method
Here the subject matter is repeated at the end of
the lesson. Generally the more the time given to
repetition of a subject, the more it is memorized

24. Factors influencing memory
Physical and mental health
A physically and mentally healthy individual can
learn a new topic soon. Diseased body and mind
weaken memory
Motivation
Motivation occupies a very prominent place in
memory. Motivation makes a difficult task easy .
Desire to learn
Desire or curiosity to learn also influence on
memory . No task can be accomplished by
pressure.

25. Subject matter
If the subject matter is simple, clear, interesting and
useful, the child memorize subject mater easily.
Method of learning
The method of learning has influence on memory. If
the method suitable to the subject is not adapted
the children never learn or memorize it
Testing
Child memory can be developed by testing, so
testing and evaluation should continue in order to
keep memory active .

26.  Sensory memory holds representations of sensory input for
brief periods of time, depending upon the modality involved.
 There are different sensory registers for each of the senses.
 The visual register is called iconic memory and auditory
register, echoic memory.
 The iconic memory lasts about half a second and the
echoic memory lasts several seconds.
 Most of the information that enters our sensory registers is
lost because we do not attend to all that is registered,
whatever we attend to moves on to the next stage of memory.

27.  Visual sensory memory—brief memory of an
image or icon. Also called iconic memory.
 Auditory sensory memory—brief memory of a
sound or echo. Also called echoic memory.
 Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer
than visual sensory memories

28. In this memory , the retention time is extremely
brief. Old sensory impressions are disappear as
they are erased by new memory.
Here we learn a thing immediately with speed and
accuracy, remember it for a short duration and
forget it rapidly after usage.

29.  A second type of memory is known as short-term memory or
STM. It holds relatively small amounts of information for
brief periods of time, usually 30 seconds or less.
 Where sensory data is first transmitted to for
processing and evaluation
 This is the memory system we use when we look up at the
phone number and dial it. If we are connected on the first
instance the telephone number is forgotten. However, if we
get the line engaged for some time, we keep on dialing the
number and through repeated dialing rehearsal of the
telephone number pushes it to the long-term memory (LTM)
storage.

30.  Short term Memory holds small amounts of information
briefly
◦ Working Memory is the another name for STM
◦ Selective Attention: Focusing (voluntarily) on a
selected portion of sensory input (e.g., selective
hearing)
◦ Phonetically: Storing information by sound; how most
things are stored in STM by sound (phonetically)

31.  Long - Term Memory (LTM) : It is a memory
system for the retention of large amounts of
information for long periods of time. It is the memory
system that permits us to remember events that happened
many years ago, yesterday, last year, and so on.
 It is the long term memory that allows you to remember
factual information that makes it possible for us to
 LTM codes information according to meaning, pattern and
other characteristics
 learn different subjects, appear in the examinations and
perform communication with others etc. It brings continuity
and meaning in our life.
• Storing information relatively permanently
•

32.  Three memory stores that differ in function,
capacity and duration
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal

33.  Function —process for basic
physical characteristics
 Capacity—large
◦ can hold many items at once
 Duration—very brief retention of
images
◦ .3 sec for visual info
◦ 2 sec for auditory info
 Divided into two types:
◦ iconic memory–visual information
◦ echoic memory– auditory
information
 Attention is needed to transfer
information to working memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory

34. Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention

35.  Function—conscious processing of information
◦ where information is actively worked on
 Capacity—limited (holds 7+/-2 items)
 Duration—brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention

36.  Mental or verbal repetition of information allows
information to remain in working memory longer than the
usual 30 seconds
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Maintenance Rehearsal

37.  Grouping small bits of information into larger
units of information
 Some people are able to retain much more
information in their short term memories by the
process of chunking, which groups information
by coding
◦ expands working memory load
 Which is easier to remember?
◦ 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
◦ 483 792 516
◦ 1491625364981
◦ As 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81

38.  Once information passes from sensory to
working memory, it can be encoded into
long-term memory
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal

39.  Function—organizes and stores information
◦ more passive form of storage than working
memory
 Unlimited capacity
 Duration—thought by some to be permanent
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal

40.  Encoding—process that controls movement
from working to long-term memory store
 Retrieval—process that controls flow of
information from long-term to working memory
store
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal

41. Episodic and semantic memory
Episodic memory is connected with episodes and
events. It my consist of personal events and
experiences associated with one’s life.
What event has happened during one’s life is stored
in the shape of episodic memory traces organized
according to time ,space and other characteristics.
Thus episodic memory is the memory which depends
on retrieving the particular events or episodes
experienced by a person through his direct or
indirect experiences.
Semantic memory helps in storing as well as
retrieving a collection of relationships between
events or association of ideas

42.  Semantic memory is based on general knowledge
coupled with meaningful interpretation,
generalized rules, principles and formulae. Eg
CO2, name of capital of the state
 Semantic memory impressions are more or less
permanent. Their recall does not necessarily
depends on the retrieval of some specific episodes
from the past.
 Semantic memory is not as personal as episodic .
 Eg meaning of the symbol CO2, name of capital of the
state are common to each individuals semantic memory

43.  Photographic memory
 The term Photographic memory stands for a
kind of memory possessed by an individual who
can remember a scene in photographic detail.
The technical term used for such memory is
eidetic imagery
 Paranormal memory
 This distinctive and unusual type of memory,
popularly known as reincarnation has emerged
as result of research in the filed of psychology.
This memory reflects an individuals regression
not only in terms of time but also in terms of
space and matter.

44.  Techniques for memorisation
 Improvement of memory mainly influenced by –
 A, the techniques and methods of learning
 B, the learning situation and environment
 C, the learners state of mind
Association
Association is technique for memorisation in which the new
information that needs to be memorised is associated/linked
to information that is not likely to forget.

45. Mnemonics
Mnemonics are techniques for improving memory.
It is Greek word meaning “aid” to memory. A
mnemonics is defined as some device which aids
the memorisation of something. This system
usually makes use of visual imaginary to provide
useful association.
Common mnemonic techniques
Acronym: it is a technique for remembering names,
phrases etc by using the first letter of each word to
form a new word.
Acrostic : it is an invented where the first letter of
each word is a cue to an idea we need to
remember. YIBGYOR

46. Chunking
Method of loci. The word loci means
location or places in Latin and the loci
method is based on the assumption
that location can be serve as an
effective cue for remembering the
material.

47.  INTEREST:
For proper memorizing, interest in the topic or subject
is essential. There is a popular saying "we can take
the horse to water for drinking but we can not make
him drink unless he is interested in drinking." Similar
is the case with the children.
 REPETITION:
 Repetition and its quality affect memorizing. Several
psychological experiments have shown that the
items repeated more often are remembered longer
than those repeated less. However, repetition
should be with understanding.

48.  RECITATION:
 In this method, the learner tries to recite and
 recall the subject matter without looking at the
paper. In this method, the learner checks up from
time to time. According to A. I. Gates (1942), in this
method, weak connections are easily discovered
and more attention is paid to them. The sense of
accomplishment encourages the learner to make
greater effort. Errors are easily detected and are
soon eliminated.

49. Forgetting
Forgetting is inability to recall a learnt topic or inability
recognize a seen object.
“Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an
experience when attempting to do so or to perform
an action previously learned” – Drever
“forgetting is the failure of the individual to revive in
consciousness an idea or group of ideas without the
help of the original stimuli”- Bhatia

50.  Types of forgetting
 Forgetting may be broadly classified into natural and
morbid forgetting
 in natural or passive forgetting, forgetting occurs
with the lapse of time in a quite normal way without
any intention of forgetting on the part of the
individual
 In morbid or abnormal forgetting one deliberately
tries to forget something.

51.  Causes of forgetting
 Meaninglessness of content
 We forget meaningless and useless content as
compared to meaningful and useful content,
because meaningless content does not leave any
imprint on the mind and it fails to establish any
relationship with life.
 Time Lapse
 We forget with the passage of time. Memory
weakens with the passage of time and forgetting
strengthen.

52.  Exercise
 So long the knowledge or activity is not repeatedly
exercised, it gradually forget. Forgetting occurs due
to the absence of exercise, therefore more exercise
is helpful in memory.
 Mental conflict or Mental illness
 Situations like mental conflicts or illness people find
himself unable to retain a thing in memory for a
long time.
 Anxiety
 Anxiety also cause in enhancing forgetting. An
individual forgets many things or does them
wrongly when he is anxious.

53.  Learning methods
 When the teacher does not use the method which
are according to the physical, mental, emotional
and social levels of the child, then the forgetting
occurs more by the use of these methods.
 Intoxicants
 Excessive use of different type of intoxicants has ill
effect on the mind and memory power weakens.

54.  Theories of forgetting
 The trace decay theory
 Some psychologists think that it is due to fading of memory
traces or decay that happens with lapse of time. Decay is
what supposedly occur when the passage of time causes
us to forget. The memory trace (or engram) fades and the
memory is no longer available.
 The trace decay theory of forgetting states that all
memories fade automatically as a function of time. Under
this theory, you need to follow a certain pathway, or trace,
to recall a memory. If this pathway goes unused for some
amount of time, the memory decays, which leads to
difficulty recalling, or the inability to recall, the memory.

55.  Rehearsal or mentally going over a memory, can slow this
process. But disuse of a trace will lead to memory decay,
which will ultimately cause retrieval failure. This process
begins almost immediately if the information is not used: for
example, sometimes we forget a person's name even
though we have just met them.

56.  Interference Theory
 It is easier to remember recent events than those further in the past.
"Transience" refers to the general deterioration of a specific memory
over time.
 Under interference theory, transience occurs because all memories
interfere with the ability to recall other memories.
 Proactive and retroactive interference can impact how well we are able
to recall a memory, and sometimes cause us to forget things
permanently
 (i) Proactive Interference
 Proactive interference occurs when old memories hinder the ability to
make new memories. In this type of interference, old information
inhibits the ability to remember new information, such as when
outdated scientific facts interfere with the ability to remember updated
facts. This often occurs when memories are learned in similar contexts,
or regarding similar things. use us to forget things permanently.

57.  Retroactive Interference
 Retroactive interference occurs when old memories are changed by
new ones, sometimes so much that the original memory is forgotten.
 This is when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the
recall of previously learned information. The ability to recall previously
learned information is greatly reduced if that information is not utilized,
and there is substantial new information being presented. This often
occurs when hearing recent news figures, then trying to remember
earlier facts and figures.

58.  Cue-Dependent Forgetting
 When we store a memory, we not only record all sensory
data, we also store our mood and emotional state.
 Our current mood thus will affect the memories that are
most effortlessly available to us, such that when we are in
a good mood, we recollect good memories, and when we
are in a bad mood, we recollect bad ones. This suggests
that we are sometimes cued to remember certain things by,
for example, our emotional state or our environment.
 Cue-dependent forgetting, also known as retrieval failure,
is the failure to recall information in the absence of memory
cues.
 There are three types of cues that can stop this type of
forgetting:

59.  Semantic cues are used when a memory is retrieved because of
its association with another memory. For example, someone
forgets everything about his trip to a place until he is reminded
that he visited a certain friend there, and that cue causes him to
recollect many more events of the trip.
 State-dependent cues are governed by the state of mind at the
time of encoding. The emotional or mental state of the person
(such as being inebriated, drugged, upset, anxious, or happy) is
key to establishing cues.
 Context-dependent cues depend on the environment and
situation. Memory retrieval can be facilitated or triggered by
replication of the context in which the memory was encoded.
Such conditions can include weather, company, location, the
smell of a particular odor, hearing a certain song, or even tasting
a specific flavor.

60.  Motivated forgetting: repression
 Freud emphasized the emotional basis of forgetting and
through the concept of repression suggests a means by
which threatening material can be kept from consciousness
— motivated forgetting. He used the term repression to
describe the tendency to avoid remembering anything
associated with fear or unpleasantness of kind.
 This account of forgetting is highly controversial. While
there is general agreement that traumatic experiences
have the potential to disturb people’s memories, there are
many concerns over the implications of the theory of
repressed memories. One area has been the suggestion
that repressed memories from childhood can be recovered
using appropriate therapeutic techniques.

61. Thank you
anivpknr@gmail.com