1. Adam Renner defended his M.S. thesis which examined how individual learning is affected by text and diagrams through an experiment involving 179 undergraduate students. 2. The experiment had students read a lesson on mitosis and answer comprehension questions under various conditions involving text cohesion, presence of diagrams, page layout, question type, and individual differences in prior knowledge and reading ability. 3. Analysis of the results found that diagrams were more helpful for bridging inferences, while text cohesion benefited factual questions, and effects depended on page layout and individual abilities.

1. When Are Pictures Worth a ThousandWords?Interactions between Reader, Text, and Diagrams in Multimodal Comprehension M.S. ThesisDefensepresentation Adam Renner Committee Danielle McNamara, PhD, chair Randy Floyd, PhD Loel Kim, PhD Department of Psychology University of Memphis July 2, 2010

2. Outline Recap General statistics & correlations Prior knowledge and readingskill Effects of conditions on time-on-task Full analysiswithexperimentalfactors Full analysiswith quasi-experimentalfactors Group analysis Discussion

3. Review Focus: Individuallearningwithtext and diagrams 6 factors: Textcohesion (high, low) Staticdiagrams (present, not present) Page configuration (text-left, text-right) Question type (text-based, bridging-inference) Prior domainknowledge (high, low) Reading comprehensionskill (high, low)

4. 4. Telophase The fourth stage of mitosis is called telophase, because telo- means “end”, and it begins when all the daughter chromosomes reach the two cell poles. During telophase the spindle that was completed in metaphase begins to disappear. Later, the nuclear membrane reappears and encloses the two groups of chromosomes at the two poles. While this is happening, the chromosomes begin to disappear and turn back into threadlike chromatin material, or DNA, which spreads throughout the nucleus. Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm, also begins during telophase. Telophase in humans is quite variable, requiring from 30 to 60 minutes.

5. Method Participants: 179 U of M undergraduates 130 female, 49 male Meanage = ~21 years (SD = ~5 years), range 17 to 50 Meanyears in college = 1.85 years Procedure Read mitosis lesson (self-paced) Open-ended comprehension questions (15 mins) Nelson-Denny reading comprehension (15 mins) Cell prior knowledge (10 mins) General & biology knowledge (15 mins) Demographics & MSI self-report (untimed)

6. Reliability of measures Comprehension questions: α = .84 Text-based: α = .71 Bridging-inference: α = .78 Inter-rater reliability (20%): К = .91 Nelson-Denny comprehension skill: α = .77 MSI: α = .45 Prior cell knowledge: α = .76 Inter-rater reliability (20%): К = .93 Prior biology knowledge: α = .69

7. Descriptive statistics Current study O’Reilly & McNamara (2007)* *O’Reilly, T., & McNamara, D. S. (2007). Reversing the reverse cohesion effect: Good texts can be better for strategic, high-knowledge readers. Discourse Processes, 43, 121-152.

8. Correlations Note. MSI = Metacomprehension Strategy Index; ND = Nelson-Denny; Hum PK = humanities prior knowledge; Bio PK = biology prior knowledge; Cell PK = cell prior knowledge; BC = biology cell combined; TB = text-based; Brid = bridging-inference **p < .001.

9. Quasi-experimentalfactors Prior domain knowledge High knowledge N = 88; M = .70; SD = .71; min = -.17; max = 2.87 Low knowledge N = 91; M = -.68; SD = .31; min = -1.60; max = -.20 Equality across experimental factors ANOVA: F(1, 171) = 2.93, p = .089, d = .26 Diagram conditions: (Mz-score = .12, SE = .094) No diagram conditions: (Mz-score = -.11, SE = .092)

10. Quasi-experimentalfactors Reading comprehension skill Skilledreaders N = 92; M = .80; SD = .68; min = -.08; max = 2.19 Lessskilledreaders N = 87; M = -.84; SD = .42; min = -.2.09; max = -.21 Equality across experimental factors No significant differences

11. Effects of Factors on Time-on- Task Cohesion F(1, 171) = 4.70, p = .032, d = .33 Low cohesion (M = .63 spw; SE = .025) High cohesion (M = .55 spw; SE = .025) Cohesion x Page configuration F(1, 171) = 4.25, p = .041 Text-left, F(1, 86) = 9.89, p = .002, d = .66 Text-right, F(1, 85) < 1

12. Effects of Factors on Time-on- Task No effect of prior knowledge Reading skill, F(1, 162) = 2.97, p = .087, d = .25 Less skilled (M = .63 spw; SE = .025) Skilled (M = .56 spw; SE = .025) Results indicate that low-cohesion text took longer to process than high-cohesion text, but only when text is positioned on left No effect or interaction with diagrams

13. Full Analysis: Experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration Question type: F(1, 171) = 36.02, p < .001, d = 1.07

14. Full Analysis: Experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration Cohesion: F(1, 171) = 5.39, p = .021, d = .35

15. Full Analysis: Experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration Cohesion X Question: F(1, 171) = 7.72, p = .006 Text-based: F(1, 171) = 8.84, p = .003, d = .32 Bridging: F(1, 171) = 1.13, p = .256

16. Full Analysis: Experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration Diagrams: F(1, 171) = 7.69, p = .006, d = .42 Text-based: F(1, 171) = 3.82, p = .052, d = .30 Bridging: F(1, 171) = 10.78, p = .001, d = .62

17. Full Analysis: Experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration Page configuration: F(1, 171) = 2.06, p = .153 Configuration X Question: F(1, 171) = 4.61, p = .033 Text-based: F (1, 171) = 3.97, p = .048, d = .32 Bridging: F(1, 171) < 1 F(1, 84) = 3.60 p = .061 d = .40 F(1, 87) < 1

18. Full Analysis: Experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration Text-left condition: Question type, F(1, 86) = 184.40, p < .001, d = .98 Cohesion x Question, F(1, 86) = 3.52, p = .064 Text-based, F(1, 86) = 1.54, p = .218 Diagrambridging, F(1, 86) = 2.84, p = .096, d = .36

19. Full Analysis: Experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration Text-right condition: Question type, F(1, 85) = 159.44, p < .001, d = 1.18 Cohesion, F(1, 85) = 6.51, p = .013, d = .54 Diagram, F(1, 85) = 6.65, p = .012, d = .55

20. Full Analysis: Experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration Text-right condition: Question X Cohesion, F(1, 85) = 4.26, p = .042 Text-based, F(1, 85) = 8.27, p = .005, d = .61 Bridging, F(1, 85) = 2.51, p = .117

21. Full Analysis: Experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration Text-right condition: Bridging, Cohesion x Diagrams F(1, 85) = 3.40, p = .069 F(1, 42) = 4.05 p = .051 d = .41 F(1, 42) = 8.29 p = .006 d = .87 F(1, 43) < 1 F(1, 43) = 1.01 p = .321

22. Full Analysis: Experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration Text-right condition: F(1, 41) = 7.14 p = .011 d = .81 F(1, 44) = 1.95 p = .170 F(1, 41) = 4.39 p = .042 d = .43 F(1, 43) = 1.01 p = .321

23. Results of AnalysiswithExperimentalFactors Main effects of diagram and cohesionlargelydepend on page configuration Text-right configuration improvesTextbase Diagrams more effective whenpresented on left ImprovesBridgingregardless of configuration AlsoimprovesTextbasewhengivenwithhigh-cohesiontext in a text-right configuration Cohesionisrelated to Textbase AlsoimprovesBridgingwhengivenwithdiagrams only in text-right configuration

24. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Domain Knowledge - Covariate: Reading skill Same effects: Question, F(1, 162) = 320.31, p < .001, d = 1.31 Cohesion, F(1, 162) = 5.78, p = .008, d = .30 Diagram, F(1, 162) = 5.80, p = .051, d = .28 Question x Cohesion, F(1, 162) = 6.17, p = .014 Question x Configuration, F(1, 162) = 3.70, p = .056

25. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Domain Knowledge - Covariate: Reading skill Knowledge, F(1, 162) = 51.66, p < .001, d = 1.12 Question x Knowledge, F(1, 162) = 9.50, p = .002 Textbase, F(1, 162) = 67.85, p < .001, d = 1.20 Bridging, F(1, 162) = 36.46, p < .001, d = .83 New effects: Reading skill, F(1, 162) = 13.15, p < .001

26. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Domain Knowledge - Covariate: Reading skill Knowledge x Question x Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 162) = 5.30, p = .023 New effects:

27. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Domain Knowledge - Covariate: Reading skill Cohesion (Textbase), with diagrams, F(1, 33) < 1 without diagrams, F(1, 48) = 15.82, p < .001, d =1.09 No effect of diagram, Ftextbase (1, 82) < 1, Fbridging (1, 82) = 2.02, p = .159 Low Knowledge:

28. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Domain Knowledge - Covariate: Reading skill Diagrams, F(1, 79) = 3.16, p = .080 Textbase, F(1, 79) < 1 Bridging, F(1, 79) = 4.22, p = .023, d = .46 High Knowledge: Textbase, F(1, 79) = 3.68, p = .059, d = .41 Bridging, F(1, 79) = 1.12, p .293 Cohesion, F(1, 79) = 2.59, p = .112

29. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Domain Knowledge - Covariate: Reading skill Diagrams, F(1, 79) = 3.16, p = .080 Textbase, F(1, 79) < 1 Bridging, F(1, 79) = 4.22, p = .023, d = .46 High Knowledge: with diagrams, F(1, 45) = 6.029, p = .018, d = .79 without diagrams, F(1, 33) < 1 Cohesion, F(1, 79) = 2.59, p = .112

30. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Domain Knowledge - Covariate: Reading skill Knowledge x Configuration x Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 162) = 3.077, p = .081 New effect:

31. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Domain Knowledge - Covariate: Reading skill Cohesion x Question, F(1, 81) = 3.25, p = .075 Knowledge x Question, F(1, 81) = 3.81, p = .054 Knowledge x Question x Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 81) = 3.63, p = .060 Text-left:

32. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Domain Knowledge - Covariate: Reading skill Knowledge x Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 80) = 5.12, p = .025 Text-right:

33. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Reading skill - Covariate: Domain knowledge Same effects: Question, F(1, 162) = 320.13, p < .001, d = 1.42 Cohesion, F(1, 162) = 6.51, p = .012, d = .39 Diagram, F(1, 162) = 5.80, p = .017, d = .35 Question x Cohesion, F(1, 162) = 8.79, p = .003 Question x Configuration, F(1, 162) = 4.17, p = .043

34. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Reading skill - Covariate: Domain knowledge New effects: Reading skill, F(1, 162) = 4.20, p = .042, d = .31 Reading skill x Diagram x Cohesion, F(1, 162) = 4.67, p = .057

35. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Reading skill - Covariate: Domain knowledge Less skilled: Cohesion, without diagrams, F(1, 39) = 8.63, p = .006, d = .88 with diagrams, F(1, 38) < 1 Diagrams, with low cohesion, F(1, 40) = 8.36, p = .006, d = .87 with high cohesion, F(1, 37) < 1

36. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Reading skill - Covariate: Domain knowledge Skilled: Cohesion, with diagrams, F(1, 40) = 3.12, p = .085, d = .53 without diagrams, F(1, 42) < 1 Diagrams, with high cohesion, F(1, 41) = 4.18, p = .047, d = .61 with low cohesion, F(1, 41) < 1

37. Experimental + Quasi-experimentalfactors Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration x Reading skill - Covariate: Domain knowledge New effects: Reading skill x Diagram x Question, F(1, 162) = 4.33, p = .039 Less skilled: Diagramtextbased, F(1, 78) = 9.51, p = .003, d = .45 Diagrambridging, F (1, 78) < 1 Skilled: Diagramtextbased, F(1, 83) < 1 Diagrambridging, F (1, 83) = 5.98, p = .017, d = .48

38. Results of AnalysiswithQuasi -ExperimentalFactors Lowknowledgelearners do not benefitfromdiagrams; benefitfromcohesionwhendiagrams absent Lessskilledlearnersbenefitfromdiagramswhencohesionlow; benefitfromcohesionwhendiagrams absent High knowledge and skilledreadersbenefitfromdiagramswhencohesionishigh Alsobenefitfromcohesionwhendiagramspresent Depends on page configuration and question type Furtheranalysisisneeded to examine all factors for each group

39. LowknowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill Same effects: Question, F(1, 82) = 162.84, p < .001, d = 1.52 Cohesion, F(1, 82) = 7.60, p = .007, d = .54 Reading skill, F(1, 82) = 20.57, p < .001 Cohesion x Question, F(1, 82) = 10.89, p = .001

40. LowknowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill New effects: Configuration x Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 82) = 1.73, p = .192 Text-left: Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 42) < 1 Text-right: Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 39) = 3.10, p = .086

41. LowknowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill Text-right: Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 39) = 3.10, p = .086 Low cohesion Diagram, F(1, 20) = 4.99, p = .037, d = .95 High cohesion Diagram, F(1, 18) < 1

42. LowknowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill New effects: Question x Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 82) = 4.51, p = .009 Diagrams absent: Cohesion, F(1, 48) = 20.52, p < .001, d = 1.25 Text-based: Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 82) = 4.51, p = .037 Diagrams present: Cohesion, F(1, 33) < 1

43. LowknowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill New effects: Question x Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 82) = 4.51, p = .009 Text-left: Q x Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 42) = 2.42, p = .127 Text-right: Q x Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 39) = 4.41, p = .042 F(1, 23) = 15.78 p = .001 d = 1.59 F(1, 24) = 4.72 p = .040 d = .84 F(1, 15) < 1 F(1, 17) < 1

44. LowknowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill New effects: Question x Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 82) = 4.51, p = .009 Low-cohesion text: Diagram, F(1, 42) = 3.51, p = .068, d = .58 High-cohesion text: Diagram, F(1, 41) = 1.47, p = .233 F(1, 23) = 4.94 p = .038 d = .95 F(1, 19) < 1

45. LowknowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill Both configurations, high cohesion-text: Question x Diagram, F(1, 41) = 4.41, p = .042 Text-based: F (1, 41) = 1.47, p = .233 Bridging: F(1, 41) = 1.39, p = .245 Text-right: Diagramsbridging, F(1, 39) = 4.67, p = .037, d = .66 F(1, 18) = 2.67 p = .119 F(1, 20) = 2.17 p = .156

46. Low-KnowledgeLearners Cohesionimproves performance on text-based questions in a text-only format Diagramsimprove performance on text-based questions whengivenwith a low-cohesiontext But only in a text-right configuration Diagrams + highcohesionhurts performance on text-based questions, helps performance on bridging Diagramsutilized more whenpresented to the left of the text Use of labels to make up for confusingtext Drew somesmallamount of inferencesfromdiagram

47. High knowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill Same effects: Question, F(1, 79) = 174.80, p < .001, d = 1.28 Diagram, F(1, 79) = 3.16, p = .080, d = .38 Reading skill, F(1, 79) = 3.10, p = .082 Configuration x Question, F(1, 79) = 5.19, p = .025

48. High knowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill Text-based: Cohesion, F(1, 79) = 3.51, p = .065, d = .40 Diagram, F(1, 79) = 1.00, p = .320 Bridging: Cohesion, F(1, 79) = 1.12, p = .293 Diagram, F(1, 79) = 4.81, p = .031, d = .47

49. High knowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill Text-left Question x Diagram, F(1, 38) = 2.90, p = .097 Diagramtextbased, F(1, 38) < 1 Diagrambridging, F(1, 38) = 1.71, p = .199 Cohesiontextbased, F(1, 38) < 1 Cohesionbridging, F(1, 38) < 1 F(1, 21) = 2.25 p = .148 F(1, 16) < 1

50. High knowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill Text-right: Cohesion, F(1, 40) = 3.35, p = .075, d = .55 Diagram, F(1, 40) = 3.05, p = .088, d = .52

51. High knowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill Text-based: Cohesion x Diagrams, F(1, 40) = 2.92, p = .095 Text-right: Cohesion, F(1, 40) = 3.35, p = .075, d = .55 Diagram, F(1, 40) = 3.05, p = .088, d = .52 Bridging: Cohesion x Diagrams, F(1, 40) = 1.64, p = .208 F(1, 22) = 8.40 p = .008 d = 1.17 F(1, 17) < 1 F(1, 22) = 4.01 p = .058 d = .81 F(1, 17) < 1

52. High knowledgeLearners Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Reading skill High-cohesion text: Diagrams, F(1, 20) = 5.12, p = .035 Text-right: Cohesion, F(1, 40) = 3.35, p = .075, d = .55 Diagram, F(1, 40) = 3.05, p = .088, d = .52 Low-cohesion text: Diagrams, F(1, 19) < 1 F(1, 20) = 6.87 p = .016 d = .98 F(1, 20) = 3.61 p = .072 d = .81

53. High-KnowledgeLearners Cohesionimproves performance on text-based questions in a multimodal format But only in a text-right configuration Diagramsimprove performance on text-based and bridging questions whengivenwith a high-cohesiontext But only in a text-right configuration Diagrams+lowcohesiondid not improvecomprehension Cohesivetexthelps to understand the diagram Linear configuration inducesbettermappingbetweentext and diagram Leads to bettertextbase and mental model

54. Lessskilledreaders Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Knowledge Same effects: Question, F(1, 78) = 209.86, p < .001, d = 1.67 Cohesion, F(1, 78) = 6.77, p = .011, d = .56 Diagram, F(1, 78) = 5.27, p = .024, d = .49 Prior knowledge, F(1, 78) = 130.85, p < .001 Cohesion x Question, F(1, 78) = 4.29, p = .042

55. Lessskilledreaders Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Knowledge New effects: Configuration x Question, F(1, 78) = 4.05, p = .048 Text-left: Cohesion, F(1, 44) < 1 Text-right Cohesion, F(1, 33) = 8.05, p = .008, d = .88 Cohesion x Question, F(1, 33) = 3.97, p = .055 F(1, 15) < 1 F(1, 17) = 13.31 p = .002 d = 1.67 F(1, 15) < 1 F(1, 17) < 1

56. Lessskilledreaders Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Knowledge New effects: Configuration x Question, F(1, 78) = 4.05, p = .048 Text-left: Cohesion x Question, F(1, 44) < 1 Cohesiontextbased, F(1, 44) < 1 Cohesionbridging, F(1, 44) < 1 F(1, 15) < 1 F(1, 17) = 13.31 p = .002 d = 1.67 F(1, 15) < 1 F(1, 17) < 1

57. Lessskilledreaders Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Knowledge New effects: Configuration x Diagram, F(1, 78) = 1.40, p = .241 Diagramtext-left, F(1, 44) < 1 Diagramtext-right, F(1, 33) = 4.49, p = .042, d = .64 Diagramtextbase, F(1, 33) = 5.79, p = .022, d = .79 Diagrambridging, F(1, 33) = 1.28, p = .267 Text-right, text-base questions: Cohesion x Diagram, F(1, 33) = 2.80, p = .103 F(1, 17) < 1 F(1, 15) = 8.07 p = .012 d = 1.35 F(1, 17) < 1

58. Less-skilledReaders Cohesionimproves performance on text-based questions in a text-only format But onlysignificant in a text-right configuration Diagramsimprove performance on text-based questions whengivenwith a low-cohesiontext But only in a text-right configuration Diagramsutilized more whenpresented to the left of the text Use of labels to make up for confusingtext Did not drawinferences

59. Skilledreaders Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Knowledge Same effects: Question, F(1, 83) = 139.87, p < .001, d = 1.27 Cohesion, F(1, 83) = 2.18, p = .144 Question, F(1, 83) = 2.21, p = .141 Prior knowledge, F(1, 83) = 47.34, p < .001 Cohesion x Question, F(1, 83) = 5.72, p = .019 Text-based questions: Cohesiondiagrams, F(1, 40) = 4.99, p = .031, d = .67 Cohesionno diagrams, F(1, 42) < 1

60. Skilledreaders Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Knowledge New effects: Diagrams x Question, F(1, 83) = 3.00, p = .087 Cohesiontextbase, F(1, 83) < 1 Cohesionbridging, F(1, 83) = 5.98 p = .017, d = .52

61. Skilledreaders Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Knowledge Text-left: Cohesion x Question, F(1, 36) = 5.29, p = .027 Text-right: Cohesion x Question, F(1, 46) = 2.37, p = .130 Cohesiontextbase, F(1, 46) = 3.49, p = .068, d = .53 F(1, 17) = 5.94 p = .026 d = .62 F(1, 22) = 3.31 p = .083 d = .74 F(1, 23) < 1 F(1, 18) < 1 F(1, 22) = 1.64 p = .214

62. Skilledreaders Question xCohesionxDiagramx Configuration; Cov: Knowledge Text-left: Diagrambridging, F(1, 36) = 2.80, p = .103 Text-right: Diagrambridging, F(1, 46) = 3.47, p = .069, d = .52 Diagram x Cohesionbridging, F(1, 46) = 2,90, p = .095 F(1, 21) = 3.48 p = .076 d = .79 F(1, 16) < 1 F(1, 24) < 1 F(1, 19) = 2.28 p = .148

63. SkilledReaders Cohesionimproves performance on text-based questions in a multimodal format Independent of configuration Diagramsimprove performance on bridging questions whengivenwith a high-cohesiontext Onlysignificant in a text-right configuration Diagrams+lowcohesiondid not improvecomprehension Cohesivetexthelps to understand the diagram Skilledreaderscannavigate a multimodal textautonomously, unlikehighknowledgelearners Particularly on text-based questions

64. Discussion Diagramshelpedlow-knowledge & less-skilledreaders, but onlywhengivenwithlow-cohesiontext in a text-right configuration Limited to text-based questions Effect on bridging not entirelysignificant Useddiagrams to help understandconfusingtext Did not use bettertext to help understanddiagrams Drew minimal inferences but did not integrate

65. Discussion Cohesionhelpedlow-knowledge & less-skilledreaders, but onlywhendiagrams not given Limited to text-based questions Independent of configuration Not significant for less-skilledreaders in text-left configuration

66. Discussion Diagramshelpedhigh-knowledgereaders, but onlywhengivenwith a high-cohesiontext in a text-right configuration Optimized performance withdiagrams and good text Induced by configuration to reference the diagrams Explicit connections helped to understanddiagrams Lowcohesiontextdid not adequatelydescribe the diagrams

67. Discussion Cohesionhelpedhigh-knowledgereaders, but onlywhengivenwithdiagrams Greaterrepetition of termsincreasedinformationaloverlapwithdiagrams Bettercohesion + configuration inducedthem to look atdiagrams more often

68. Discussion Diagramshelpedskilledreaders, but onlywhengivenwith a high-cohesiontext Only on bridging questions Independent of configuration Cohesionhelpedskilledreaders, but onlywhengivenwithdiagrams Only on text-based questions Independent of configuration

69. Implications for Multimedia Learning Most readers have to be induced to pay attention to diagrams Spatial contiguity principle (Mayer, 2005) Until now studies have only addressed effects of significant changes Current results suggest greater specificity Text-left configuration is a split-attention format Results suggest a linear contiguity effect Similar to Holsanova et al. (2008) May be culturally constrained (Spinillo & Dyson, 2001)

70. Implications for Multimedia Learning Signaling principle (Mayer, 2005) Use of headings, labels, color coding, lists, etc. Holsanova et al. (2008) extended to include cues resulting from conceptual organization Different from enhancing text cohesion Explicit connections produces a clearer understanding of spatial features and relations Increases inter-representational coherence Results suggest a text cohesion principle Contingent on spatial/linear contiguity Dual scripting principle - Holsanova et al. (2008)

71. Limitations Results are contextually constrained Needs replication in a digital medium Needs replication with multiple diagrams/texts per page/screen Results need confirmation with eye-tracking Use to detect shifts in attention Role of integrative saccades Also use to study individual differences in processing or changes in processing over time

72. Contributions & Conclusion Extends text comprehension research into multimedia Highlights importance of textual features Spur further research that incorporates comprehension & multimedia disciplines Role of individual differences Specific behaviors & processes are contingent on cognitive capacity and/or strategy use of learner Push for reading strategy instruction in schools Refinement of multimedia principles

73. Thankyou for your attention! This research is supported by IES (R305A080589) Special thanks to Danielle McNamara Randy Floyd Loel Kim …. and all you guys! Wolfgang Schnotz Amy Witherspoon Natalie Davis