1. Conceptualization of Fashion as a Social Construct:
A Global & Chinese Perspective
Yanyi Li
New York University
Conceptualization of Fashion as a Social Construct 1

2. Abstract
This paper explains Chinese cultural fashion diffusions phenomena from
globalization and sociological perspectives. Moreover, this work projects that
Chinese body and Asian bodies gradually become a new beauty standard.
Combining with three fashion diffusion models, this paper provides an angel to
look at and study Chinese cultural fashion in a way of using Weber’s classes and
social status theories. Different classes and social status have different privileges
and symbols. Fashion, one of the visible symbols, indicates people’s classes and
social status. This work therefore specifically focuses on three diffusion theories:
trickle-up, trickle-down and trickle-across. By presenting how ancient Chinese
fashion diffused, my aim is to explain how contemporary Chinese cultural fashion
diffuses in relation to global landscape. By studying Chinese cultural fashion
diffused in the Western world, Chinese body and Asian bodies are changing the
current social representations in our society.
Key words: Chinese cultural fashion, Chinese body and Asian bodies,
classes and social status, globalization, fashion diffusion.
Global Contributions of Chinese Fashion Diffusion 2

3. Introduction
Fashion scholars Bernard Barber and Lyle S. Lobel align with sociologist
Max Weber school of thoughts that fashion is a socially constructed phenomena.
In this article, “Fashion in Women’s Clothes and the American Social System”,
Barber and Lobel’s fashion phenomena argument aligns with Weber’s definition of
“social action” in that according to Barber and Lobel fashion “consumption equals
social class position” (Barber & Lobel, 1952). They explain this by stating that
fashion phenomena equation to social constructs open spaces for knowledge
construction processes because it enables and advances meaning making
practices. This is done through the fact that fashion places in communities
offering fashion scholarship opportunities to observe and study fashion and
fashion trends through social actions and norms. Barber and Lobel go on to state
that fashion phenomenon ranges widely, from the social to the cultural, because it
opens spaces for an extension of knowledge construction that ranges from
language accessibility and usage to identity invention and construction.
For this reason, a majority of fashion scholars and designers agree to the
definition of fashion as a socially constructed phenomenon that is widely
influenced by culture and communities of practices. That is, fashion definition and
practices come from ways of a specific group of people think and do, which in
some cases could be informed by religious and political practices. In this paper, I
employ sociology theories, theorists and designers to examine Chinese definitions
of beauty in relation to fashion trends. I do this examination by analyzing an
Conceptualization of Fashion as a Social Construct 3

4. ancient Chinese fashion design Qipao to identify contributions of this fashion
design in contemporary Chinese and global fashion. My conclusion aligns with
fashion phenomena as a social construction that directly informs identity invention
and construction.
Situating Fashion as a Social Construct Phenomenon
In Economy and Society Weber states the importance of individual social
action sociologically, which he claims because social actions orient others towards
subjective ways of meaning-making. As a result, social mobility directly influences
fashion design and scholarship as well as its usage and accessibility. Aligning with
Weber social construct phenomena, sociologist and fashion scholars introduce the
trickle-up and trickle-down phenomena in fashion. For Barber and Lobel, trickle-
up and trickle-down phenomena allow designers to take social mobility in
consideration and practice while at the same time developing and introducing
fashion designers that cuts across social classes and structures. Barber and Lobel
argue that fashion functions on a trickle-down system which then creates a
tension between and within social classes (Barber & Lobel, 1952).
For example, women with higher socioeconomic status seek for fashion
symbols that separate them from those within lower socioeconomic status. On the
other hand, women within lower socioeconomic strive to attain fashion symbols
that will equate them to those with higher symbols. Drawing from Barber and
Lobel, I believe that fashion is an interrelated communicative skill influenced by
Global Contributions of Chinese Fashion Diffusion 4

5. media, culture and communication. As compared to trickle-down system, fashion
also functions as a trickle-up model. Scholar George A. Field demonstrates the
trickle-up theory by defining a process of influence adoption, which is the “status
float phenomenon” (Field, 1970). Trickle-Up system defines that fashion
innovation is initiated from the lower status group rather than the higher status
group. The adoption process is originated from new styles in subculture, and the
majority starts to borrow and spread the new styles. In Field’s article “The Status
Float Phenomenon the Upward Diffusion of Innovation”, Field exemplifies trickle-
up model in fashion. He cites the fashion adoptions from prostitutes.
For instance, the style of high heel was adopted massively by middle and
upper class after Parisian prostitutes first adopted. Similarly, the style of rouge
and lipstick spread upward from the lower class to middle and upper class. As the
third model in fashion diffusions, trickle-across indicates that fashion moves
horizontally between similar social groups. Scholar Herbert Blumer argues that a
collective selection process actually replaces class differentiation, which is that
trickle-across replaces trickle-down (Blumer, 1969). In addition to the trickle-up
and trickle-down phenomena, Fields adds that fashion moves horizontally as well.
That he calls trickle-across and describes it as the third model in fashion
diffusions. For Fields, trickle-across indicates that fashion moves horizontally
between similar social groups. This is important because it confirms sociological
implications of fashion as social construct phenomena, but in this case also, as a
mobile fluid construct. Sociologist researcher and scholar Herbert Blumer grounds
Conceptualization of Fashion as a Social Construct 5

6. this concept of fashion moving on the concept that collective selection processes
replace class differentiation, which in turn leads trickle-across to replace trickle-
down (Blumer, 1969).
In his classical article, “Fashion: From Class Differentiation to Collective
Selection”, Blumer (1969) suggests that
The fashion mechanism appears not in response to a need of class
differentiation and class emulation but in response to a wish to be in
fashion, to lie abreast of what has good standing, to express new
tastes which are emerging in a changing world (p. 282).
For example, a particular fashion design could move through diverse social status
at the same time. This movement often builds relationships as the first group to
adopt a fashion design or trend has the tendency to communities around them
accordingly.
Fashion Diffusions in Chinese Fashion History and Culture
Fashion conceptualization of trickle-up, down and across also has its roots
in the history of Chinese fashion design. As the earliest theory among these three,
trickle-down illustrates the relationship between social rank and fashion. Going
back to Barber and Lobel’s examples of fashion as a social class symbol, Chinese
fashion draws its definition and distinction from Western influences. To illustrate
this point, I will share two stories: the first is a Western example, whereas the
second is an example in ancient China. In France, only princess and duchesses
Global Contributions of Chinese Fashion Diffusion 6

7. could wear silk before the Revolution legally. Similarly, clothes were used as a
class symbol to differentiate prestige people and ordinary people in ancient China.
Barber and Lobel explain that, “In Classical China, the mandarin showed his
class position and his abstention from manual labor by his ankle-length gown and
his long fingernails” (Barber; Lobel 1952). Moreover, trickle-down phenomenon
has existed in ancient China. In ancient China, it was common that clothes were
legally bonded with royal family, prestige and social rankings. Due to the fact that
traditional social norms in ancient China controlled women’s clothing and in turn
fashion, it was difficult for women reveal certain parts of their bodies in the Tang
Dynasty. At that time, dress code was favored by the society and legally enforced.
In Tang Dynasty, women’s clothes were less conservative. At the early
period of Tang Dynasty, only royal women, duchess and professional royal
dancers and singers could wear clothes that bare the body above chest. Women
from ordinary social class were not allowed to dress up clothes revealing their
body above chest. Then this kind of innovative revealing style spread throughout
the wealthy and privilege; and some evidence shows that even ordinary women
adopted this bold style eventually. Not only did Ancient China had fashion that
reflected trickle-down system, but also trickle-across phenomenon has shown
ancient China, too. For instance, in Song Dynasty, both Royal members and
ordinary people had prospered their own fashion within each group. The examples
of trickle-up could also be found in Tang Dynasty.
Conceptualization of Fashion as a Social Construct 7

8. As one of the most prosperous and powerful periods in ancient China, Tang
Dynasty has attracted plenty of international visitors, diplomats, scholars and
business men. There were many minority groups while Han people was the ruling
class. Those minorities were called Hu people by the dominant class. The fashion
of Hu people had unique exotic styles and elements of Indian and Persian. Hu
fashion quickly became favored and adored by majority in Chang’an (the capital of
Tang Dynasty). The adoption of Hu fashion by Han people exemplified the
adoption process of subcultural fashion by majority.
Even there are controversies on the origin of Qipao, the importance and
position of it is publicly acknowledged. In 2011, the craftsmanship of Qipao or
Cheongsam was listed as China intangible cultural heritage. In 2014, China
Cheongsam Association was established, and Chinese first lady, Peng Liyuan, was
assigned as the honorary chair. High class has been definitely associated with
Cheongsam since it was first created back in 1920s. The adoption of Cheongsam
is trickle-down as it made popular by socialites and upper class women. There
was another recent example in the international political stage to reaffirm its
trickle-down diffusion model. Each year, Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
(APEC) provides a platform to discuss international issues for global leaders from
different countries.
Additionally, it has become a tradition that world leaders wearing the
traditional outfits designed by the host country. In 2014, the APEC summit was
held in Beijing, China. Luxury handmade cheongsams were designed for the first
Global Contributions of Chinese Fashion Diffusion 8

9. ladies from different countries. And for the leaders, the matched male made-to-
order traditional Chinese Zhongshan suits were given to wear. One article on The
New York Times has proved the trickle-down system again. “APEC Leaders’ Attire
Inspires Imitators” stated, “The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation summit
meeting in Beijing had barely concluded when copies of the outfits worn by the
leaders at the event’s opening began appearing for sale in China” (Austin Ramzy,
2014) Several vendors had produced copies of the suits worn by the world
leaders, because they believed that the suit must be popular since the Chinese
President has worn it. This is exactly one trickle-down example in Chinese fashion
contemporarily. One style is worn by the elites or upper class, and it is copied by
the lower class and ordinary people.
Chinese Fashion Contributions in the Global Market
Chinese traditional outfit draws attentions to the world fashion. Chinese
fashion has been actively presented on the runway at the global fashion weeks. As
one of the Chinese signature cultural symbols, inspiring Western luxury and haute
couture fashion has confirmed its luxurious and prestige image, its cultural beauty
and aesthetic value. Hazel Clark is one of the leading scholars in design and
cultural identity with a focus on fashion. Clark talks about how Chinese fashion
plays a critical role in global fashion as a chapter Fashion and Orientalist - the
1990s in her recent book The Fabric of Cultures: Fashion, Identity, and
Globalization. One of the well-selected examples Clark demonstrated in this
Conceptualization of Fashion as a Social Construct 9

10. chapter was that designer John Galliano designed 1930s Shanghai inspired
collection for Christian Dior autumn/winter 1997/1998 (Paulicelli; Clark 2008).
Another example of how China influences global fashion tremendously is
the exhibition, China: Through the Looking Glass. China: Through the Looking
Glass became the highest attended exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s
Costume Institute, which has attracted more than 730,000 global visitors.
Alexander McQueen: Savage Beauty has drawn 661,509 visitors totally, which
ranked the 8th most popular exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum. China:
Through the Looking Glass featured more than 140 haute couture pieces. The
exhibition reflects how Chinese visual culture influences global fashion landscape.
Chinese fashion has created a dialogue between the East and the West. Chinese
fashion has spread Chinese cultural identity globally through history, art and film,
and made its influences in culture, communication and economics on a global
scale.
Exploring fashion theories trickle-up, trickle-down and trickle-across
explains that fashion diffusions function closely with social class in Western
culture. Examining and interpreting the three Western fashion theories in Chinese
culture indicate that fashion phenomenon of ancient China reflects the Western
fashion diffusion models. As such, Chinese fashion trends influence global fashion
industry through interactions and impact. My examination of Cheongsam or Qipao
through the trickle-down and trickle-up theory identifies that Chinese fashion
influence Western fashion culture and trends. The reminder of my analysis
Global Contributions of Chinese Fashion Diffusion 10

11. concludes that the adaptation of Cheongsam/Qipao signifies that Chinese cultural
fashion is diffused as trickle-up on a global level. Since the global fashion
landscape is changing because of the force of globalization, Chinese fashion
interpretations is informing how Chinese people define beauty in relation to
Chinese fashion and global fashion developments.
Similar to definitions of fashion constructs, beauty is also a debatable
construct. In fact sociologist Lucile Salesses and Deborah Romain discuss beauty
as a social imaginary and social representation concept. In their article “The
Imaginary and Social Representations Generated by Fashion Images”, Salesses
and Romain discuss the challenge fashion magazines put on women. They talk
about the social imaginary concept as a theoretical concept and framework has
two fundamental approaches. Salesses and Romain describe social imaginary as
‘the product of imagination” and claims that has creative and dynamic abilities.
Furthermore, they describe social representations as foundation for social
imaginary, offering social imaginary elements for its structure. Moreover, because
representation is socially represented, it means that it evolves constantly. Social
representations can be generated and given by different groups.
Salesses and Romain analyzed representations of women on fashion on
leading women’s magazines to clarify social assumptions of on the “ideal women”,
and this ideal is “by definition, diffilcult to obtain ...” (Salesses & Romain, 2014).
Their analysis suggests that Women’s magazines play a major role on how
community members define beauty. In relations to social representations and
Conceptualization of Fashion as a Social Construct 11

12. imaginary, women’s magazines deliver images that are part of social
representations, and the images can also constantly change existing
representations. Historically and stereotypically, fashion images only portrait
women’s images as unrealistic and unachievable. The images produced by fashion
magazines and their advertisers tend to only present the ideal women. However,
Salesses and Romain found out that the ideal women right now is seen as: “at
ease with herself, who feels good about herself”. Since the images presented in
the magazines are no longer just only being unrealistic skinny, the representations
often look natural. With “natural look”, the ideal woman should also be
“individualistic, self-centered and hedonistic ambition” (Salesses & Romain,
2014).
Based on social presentation and social imaginary theories and the
study they conducted, they conclude that women’s magazines do not only deliver
social imaginary of traditional type of idea women social representation, but also a
new trend of ideal women social representation. Unlike only being beautiful, thin
and feminine, the new trend of ideal woman is also “graceful, independent,
intelligent, educated, tall, voluptuous, sporty and elegant”(Salesses & Romain,
2014). Their conducted study also proved that, there is a strong relationship
between social imaginary and social representations. And their research
reaffirmed that women’s magazines do deliver and build the stereotypical ideal
woman.
Global Contributions of Chinese Fashion Diffusion 12

13. Moreover, women’s magazines also help create new social imaginary and
develop new social representation of the ideal women trickle-down, trickle-up and
trickle-across are fashion theories generated in Western society and culture.
However, fashion phenomenon, diffusions and trends in ancient China can be
explained by those three theories. As a traditional Chinese cultural fashion trend,
Qipao still impacts and leads Chinese fashion nationally and globally. As a trend
that can be explained as tickle-down in China domestically, Qipao become a
fashion and cultural trend of trickle-up in the globe internationally. As fashion
movements intertwined with globalization, Chinese body or Asian bodies are
presented and visible more. That makes me question: how does globalization in
minority fashion relate to Chinese body or Asian body.
Global Conceptualization of Chinese Fashion
From fashion diffusions theories’ perspective on a global scale, Chinese
fashion adaptation by Western leading luxury fashion houses aligns with the
trickle-up theory. From a traditional point of view, Chinese culture is considered to
be a subculture as it is a minority identity from a dominant Western culture
perspective. Specifically, Western luxury designers adopted traditional and
cultural Chinese fashion, and presented to the most elite and upper class groups.
This process of adoption of a dominant culture from a subculture indicated that
Chinese fashion has been diffused upward from a global perspective. The upward
diffusion of Chinese fashion is directly related to Chinese identity, cultural beauty
Conceptualization of Fashion as a Social Construct 13

14. and Asian bodies. When John Galliano presented his Shanghai inspired collections
for Christian Dior fall/winter 1997-1998, he styled and accessorized his models to
embody what he thinks of as China doll. He did this by ensuring that all models
wear dark-haired wigs, traditional Chinese earnings and necklaces and rouge
lipsticks. In his collection, which is based on Chinese fashion, most of the models
he used where all Caucasian white females; a handful where were Asian and/or
Black.
After a decade, another haute couture house created a whole collection
based on Asian culture. The fashion creative director of Givenchy, Riccardo Tisci,
presented his Japanese - influenced collection at the Summer/Spring 2011 Haute
Couture show. Unlike John Galliano at his Christian Dior show more than a decade
ago, Riccardo Tisci used Asian models exclusively this time. This time, no Asian
styled dark wigs needed. Riccardo Tisci made his statement through his Asian
beauties. A decade ago, Asian fantasy was performed from White bodies. The
difference between the Christian Dior show and Givenchy show indicated a trend;
a trend of Chinese-ness and Asian body. Chinese fashion increases its influence in
the globe, and Chinese beauty and Chinese body are presented.
Drawing from all of the social theories, communication and media studies
and fashion researches above, fashion is part of identity, more specifically, an
identity of classes and social status. With globalization emerging and new social
trends of women and beauty developing, Chinese-ness composing of Chinese
cultural fashion and Chinese body becomes empowering and influential globally.
Global Contributions of Chinese Fashion Diffusion 14

15. As one of the visible symbols, fashion indicates people’s classes and social status
in our symbolic society. Thus, the rising of Chinese fashion indicates that the
global landscape of classes and social status is changing by the force of Chinese-
ness. Moreover, fashion is also a symbol of race and ethnicity, as I studied
Chinese national costume Qipao, for example. The double functions of fashion in
social classes and racial identity determine that fashion needs to be studied and
researched deeper directly, from a sociological perspective.
As Chinese fashion is rising, Chinese body or Asian bodies are presented
increasingly. Oriental physical features gradually become a new beauty standard
in the international fashion industry. While the new beauty standard is
establishing, Asian female identity is gaining its voice and power to reinforce the
changes in global classes and social status. As a new standard establishes,
people will try to attain it and social trends will be directed. More social imaginary
of Chinese body and Asian bodies will be created and published, while Chinese
body and Asian bodies will change existing social representations and become
new social representations. Thus, these new changes will reflect Chinese-ness in
classes and social status with a globalization lens.
Conclusion
To conclude, fashion sologists’ definition of fashion phenomena as social
constructs offer fashion meaning-makers opportunities to advance fashion
scholarship. This advancement is not only important as it offers way fashion
Conceptualization of Fashion as a Social Construct 15

16. relates to everyday practices, but it also shows how fashion informs concepts
such as beauty, which directly informs identity construction. Salesses and
Romain’s description of social presentation and social imaginary theories relates
to this because their study shows how women’s magazines influence social
imagination of what could be considered as the traditional ideal women. They go
on to suggest that while beautiful should not be limited to whether one is thin and
feminine, trend of ideal woman should be discussed based on the person’s
“graceful, independent, intelligent, education, tall, voluptuous, sporty and
elegant” (Salesses & Romain, 2014). Their study proves that there is a strong
relationship between social imaginary and social representations. And their
research reaffirmed that women’s magazines do deliver and build on existing
stereotypes of ideal woman.
Weber’s definition of class tension in relation to race identity creates and
common shared culture in one chapter Ethnic Groups. In addition to racial groups
that have different physical types, habits and custom, Weber also pointed out that
interracial intercourse can generate attraction, tension or conflicts. I focused on
Weber’s discussion on common shared racial characters and visible traits of
cultural group. According to Weber, clothes, one of the cultural traits, can serve
as a symbol of ethnic membership. Moreover, clothes and all other visible cultural
traits function as a standard that reflects what people think is proper. Thus,
clothes are a way to demonstrate group honor and dignity. Similarly, clothes
function in a way that presents and reflects classes and status. In my research
Global Contributions of Chinese Fashion Diffusion 16

17. paper, Qiaopao, positioned as Chinese national costume, is adopted by the
Western world. As the visible racial symbol of Chinese, Qiaopao stands for
Chinese cultural honor and dignity. And its adoption by the Western fashion world
indicates that Chinese.
Finally, majority of fashion scholars may agree that fashion is a socially
constructed phenomenon. Bernard Barber and Lyle S. Lobel’s argument
subscribes to this description and argues that fashion is used in a wide range from
social to cultural meaning making practices that includes but not limited to
historical preservations, as well as language usage and accessibility. Barber &
Lobel believe that because fashion “consumption equals social class
position” (Barber & Lobel, 1952), it makes opportunity for mass production of
ready-to-wear and made-to-order designs, which have the opportunity to move in
between and across cultures and peoples.
For Barber and Lobel, fashion functions on a trickle-down system, which
creates a tension within social class (Barber & Lobel, 1952). Trickle-down system
defines a fashion diffusion model from upper class to lower class. For example,
women with higher socioeconomic status seek for fashion symbols that separate
them from those within lower socioeconomic status. On the other hand, women
within lower socioeconomic strive to attain fashion symbols that will equate them
to those with higher symbols. Drawing from Barber and Lobel, I believe that
fashion is an interrelated communicative skill influenced by media, culture and
communication.
Conceptualization of Fashion as a Social Construct 17

18. The adoption process is originated from new styles in subculture, and the
majority starts to borrow and spread the new styles. Thus the trickle-up, down
and across fashion theories, though generated in Western society and culture, has
strong influences in non-western cultural practices. As such fashion phenomenon,
its diffusion and trending in ancient China cultures could be explained by
understandings of fashion as social construct. As a traditional Chinese cultural
fashion trend, Qipao still impacts and leads Chinese fashion nationally and
globally. As a trend that can be explained as tickle-down in China domestically,
Qipao become a fashion and cultural trend of trickle-up in the globe
internationally. As fashion movements intertwined with globalization, Chinese
body or Asian bodies are presented and visible more. That makes me question:
how does globalization in minority fashion relate to Chinese body or Asian body.
Global Contributions of Chinese Fashion Diffusion 18

19. References
Barber, B. Lobel, L. S. (1952). "Fashion” in Women’s Clothes and The American
Social System. Social Forces, 31, 124-131
Blumer, H. (1969). Fashion: From Class Differentiation to Collective Selection,
TheSociological Quarterly, 10, 275–291
Clark, H. (2000). The cheongsam. New York: Oxford University Press
Field, G. (1970). Status Float Phenomenon, Business Horizons, 13, 45–52
McCune, Z. (2011). Consumer Production in Social Media Networks: A Case
Study of the “Instagram” iPhone App. Retrieved from
http://thames2thayer.com/portfolio/a-study-of-instagram/
Paulicelli, E. Clark H. (2009). The Fabric of Cultures: Fashion, Identity, and
Globalization. New York:Routledge
Ramzy, A. (2014). APEC Leaders’ Attire Inspires Imitators, New York Tmes,
Retrieved from http: / /sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/11/13/apac-
leaders- attire-inspires-lmitators/
Salesses, L. Romain, D. (2014). "The Imaginary and Social Representations
Generated byFashion Images in Women’s Magazines”. Papers on Social
Representations, 23, 23.1-23.20
Weber, M. (1922). Economy and Society. Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press
Weber, M. (2000). Social Stratification: Class, Race, and Gender in Sociological
Perspective. Boulder, CO: Westview Press
Conceptualization of Fashion as a Social Construct 19