1. Copyright © 2005
CHAPTER 6–EARLY CHILDHOOD SCHOOLING IN AMERICA William Kritsonis
PAGE 186 All Rights Reserved / Forever
This book is protected under the Copyright Act of 1976. Uncited Sources,
Violators will be prosecuted. Courtesy, National FORUM Journals
CHAPTER 6
EARLY CHILDHOOD SCHOOLING IN AMERICA
KEY POINTS
1. Early childhood education is generally defined as the education of children
from birth to eight years of age.
2. Early childhood education as a specialization dates back to the 19th centu-
ry.
3. Pestalozzi, a Swiss educator (1746-1827), was an important figure in the
development of early childhood education.
4. Froebel (1782-1852) is considered the Father of the Kindergarten.
5. The first nursery school in England was established in 1911 by Margaret
and Rachel McMillan.
6. Jean Piaget is probably the most noted professional regarding the intellec-
tual development of children.
7. Project Head Start developed out of the war on poverty era of the 1960s
and facilitated the growth of preschool education.
8. One of the fastest growing types of child care is employer-sponsored pro-
grams.
9. Public school kindergarten became a national program when Mississippi
established these programs in 1986.
10. The exact nature of kindergarten programs is still debated.
11. Public Law 99-457 mandates that schools provide services to children with
disabilities ages 3-5.

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CHAPTER 6–EARLY CHILDHOOD SCHOOLING IN AMERICA
A. OVERVIEW
This chapter presents information regarding educational activities for children
younger than traditional school-age children. Also discussed is the history of the
development of early childhood education and current services.
B. KEY TERMS–DEFINITIONS
ADVOCACY - professionals in education who are politically active in efforts
to change public policy that affects young children and their families.
CHILD CARE CENTER OR DAY CARE CENTER - centers that provide
care for young children. Most child care center goals are one or more of the
following:
a. to provide for the education and care of young children;
b. to provide child care for working parents;
c. to enhance the intellectual, social, physical, and emotional development
of the children;
d. to provide education and support services for parents.
COMPENSATORY - programs for early childhood education that focus on
planned intervention in the younger years and have shown positive benefits lat-
er in life.
DISABLED CHILDREN - children who are handicapped, physically or men-
tally, and are at risk or show a developmental delay.
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION - the education of children from birth
to age 8.
EMPLOYER SPONSORED SCHOOLS - according to some researchers, this
is the fastest growing type of child care. Employers have learned that providing
day-care services to employees results in many advantages to the company’s
productivity, image, and employee morale.
FAMILY DAY CARE - an alternative to center care and serve a small group of
children in a home setting.
FEDERAL INVOLVEMENT - the creation of the Children’s Bureau in 1912
marks the first federal involvement in promoting the health, education, and
welfare of young children. During WWII, the Lanhan Act established child
care centers in war industry areas. In 1959, the Department of Health Educa-
tion and Welfare was established. In 1972, a comprehensive child care services
bill was passed.

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FROEBEL - Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel was a German-born educator
who was called the “Father of Kindergarten.” He believed that activity was the
basis for knowing and that play was an essential component for learning. His
concept of how children learned was based on the idea of natural unfolding and
that the educator’s roll was to observe this unfolding process and provide activ-
ities that helped the child learn what he was ready to learn.
HEAD START - this program started in 1965 as an eight-week summer pro-
gram but soon grew into a full-year program. Through Head Start, early child-
hood education was viewed as a vehicle for school improvement and social
change. This program is primarily directed to low socio-economic level chil-
dren.
J. OBERLIN - Johann Freidrick Oberlin, a Protestant minister, developed the
earliest reported school for young children in 1767.
KINDERGARTEN - a curriculum and methodology developed by Froebel for
young children.
NURSERY SCHOOL - first established by Margaret McMillan in London in
1911. The nursery school stressed health and nutrition, perceptual motor skills,
the development of the imagination, and outdoor play and work. The role of
the teacher was to nurture opportunities for creativity and play.
PESTALOZZI - Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi was a Swiss educator who was
greatly influenced by the romantic philosopher, Rousseau. Pestalozzi believed
the best way to learn many concepts was through manipulative experiences.
PIAGET - Jean Piaget contributed his theory of cognitive development that
uses four stages of cognitive development:
a. Sensorimotor - birth to 18 months or 2 years;
b. Preoperational - 2 to 7 years;
c. Concrete operations - 7 to 12 years;
d. Formal operations - 12 to 15 years.
Piaget also found that children use three processes to organize their experi-
ences into a framework for thinking:
a. assimilation;
b. accommodation;
c. equilibrium.
Jean Piaget was a Swiss scientist who studied the developmental psychology of
children. He was also a recognized zoologist and genetic epistemologist. He

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made contributions to philosophy, religion, sociology, logic, mathematics, and
psychology.
P.L. 99-457 - 1986 - the Education of the Handicapped Act Amendment was
legislation affecting the needs of special-needs youngsters. This law recognizes
the importance of family services in meeting the needs of the pre-school child.
The law allows for greater family participation in the education process. It also
established new federal initiative to assist states in developing and implement-
ing comprehensive programs for young children with special needs.
PRE-KINDERGARTEN - most of these programs are part-day and target at-
risk four-year-olds. They generally are administered by the state departments
of education and provided by the local school districts.
PRESCHOOL - sometimes called nursery schools, preschools have historical-
ly been half-day programs. They traditionally focus on the social and emotion-
al needs of the children. Today they focus on the intellectual development of
the child and sponsorship is often assumed by colleges, universities, and other
educational institutions that provide a laboratory setting in which to train stu-
dents.
C. SOME PRECEDING THOUGHTS
1. What are the purposes of early childhood education programs?
The education of children from birth to age eight is the purpose of early
childhood education. The purpose and focus of these programs has varied
greatly among sponsors. Programs have been sponsored by institutions,
agencies, government, and other groups. Federal, state, and local govern-
ments, parent groups, churches, private entrepreneurs, businesses, and in-
dustries have provided programs for young children.
2. How did the field of early childhood education emerge?
Early childhood education dates back to the 19th century. Early childhood
education as a field could not emerge until the concept of childhood as a
developmental period was accepted. Prior to the 16th and 17th centuries,
children were regarded as little adults and were given no special considera-
tion or treatment.
3. What leading thinkers influenced programs for young children?
Plato - development of a ruling class of people with strong values.
Aristotle - a person’s merits should determine his status.

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Martin Luther - believed all people were equal before God; believed edu-
cation should follow the course of nature; recommended that teachers
make learning easy and pleasant.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau - believed a child can become autonomous and
self-directed based on his philosophy. Some historians of education point
to his work as the dividing line between historical and modern periods of
education.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi - best way to learn many concepts was
through manipulative experiences.
Johann Friedrich Oberlin - developed earliest reported school, especially
for young children known as the “knitting school.”
Robert Owen - established the Infant School in 1816. Some of the prac-
tices originating in Owen’s schools still can be found in today’s programs
for young children. These include child-chosen activities, learning through
play, and a nurturing atmosphere guided by a non-punitive teacher.
Friederick Froebel - “Father of Kindergarten” whose curriculum included
a set of “gifts and occupations” designed to enhance development of the
senses and symbolize unity with God. Also established an institute to train
young women to teach kindergarten.
John Dewey - “child centered curriculum” and “child centered schools”;
stressed daily living activities; believed teachers should use the interests of
children as a source for subject matter and as a catalyst for learning skills.
Maria Montessori - concluded that intelligence was not fixed and could
be shaped by the child’s experiences. Her ideas of creating a child-sized
environment and her focus on using sensory materials were adopted in ear-
ly childhood education programs throughout the world.
Jean Piaget - devoted many years to studying the way children think;
found that children construct knowledge about their world through real ex-
periences and through manipulating, changing, and adapting information.
Framework for thinking:
a. assimilation–integration of new information into existing structures;
b. accommodation–changing or modifying the scheme or structures to re-
flect the child’s understanding of the world;
c. equilibrium–successful balancing of assimilation and accommodation.

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The Four Stages of Cognitive Development
a. Sensorimotor;
b. Preoperational;
c. Concrete operations;
d. Formal operations.
4. What influenced federal involvement in early childhood education
programs?
The Children’s Bureau established in 1912 was an investigative and re-
porting office. Except for some work relief programs under Franklin De-
lano Roosevelt (FDR), there was no federal involvement until WWII when
the Lanhan Act was passed to establish child care centers in industry areas.
When the war ended, the government withdrew its involvement. Since
then, the focus has been on providing assistance to families unable to ade-
quately care for their children. Then in 1965, Head Start began.
5. What were the goals of compensatory early childhood education pro-
grams?
a. improve physical health and abilities;
b. help social and emotional development;
c. improve mental processes and skills;
d. establish patterns and expectations of success;
e. increase capacity to relate positively to family members while at the
same time strengthening the family’s stability and capacity to relate
positively to the child;
f. develop a positive attitude toward society and foster constructive op-
portunities for society to work together with the poor in solving their
problems;
g. increase the sense of dignity and self-worth within child and family.
6. What types of current programs are available for young children?
Child Care Centers - sponsored by various agencies or individuals either
as employee benefits or for profit. Serve children from six weeks to after
school care for older children.
Family Day Care Homes - serves a small number of children in group
care; provides more toddler care than any other group.
Preschools or Nursery Schools - historically, half-day programs focused
on the social and emotional needs of the children.

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Employer-Sponsored Programs - currently the fastest growing type of
child care. Reasons employers consider providing child care include:
a. reduce employee turnover;
b. reduce absenteeism;
c. increase productivity;
d. enhance morale;
e. improve recruitment;
f. enhance the company’s image.
Public School Kindergarten - since 1986, all 50 states now serve five-
year-olds in public schools, but there is a tremendous diversity in the pro-
grams.
7. What are the current issues in early childhood education programs?
a. the education of the whole child; the role of play in learning; the belief
in universal education; individual freedom in learning;
b. should kindergarten be compulsory? Full day? And what should we
teach?
c. recent trends to incorporate developmentally inappropriate teaching
strategies such as workbooks, ditto sheets, and formal reading groups,
as well as academic skill oriented curriculum content in kindergarten
raise serious concerns;
d. developmentally appropriate educational experiences; the need for a
national child care bill.
D. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. What are the trends in public school kindergarten and pre-kinder-
garten programs?
A growing body of research has emerged recently affirming that children
learn most effectively through a concrete, play-oriented approach to early
childhood education.
During the last decade, funds for early childhood programs have decreased
even as a greater awareness of the benefits of good quality programs for
young children has occurred. While the federal government has generally
reduced its support for young children’s programs, the states have recog-
nized the need to fund programs for pre-kindergartners.

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2. What is the most accepted practice concerning parent involvement in
programs for young children?
Traditionally, parental involvement in the educational process was some-
what vague and restricted. Professionals are now viewing parents as an un-
tapped resource in working with young children.
E. REVIEW ITEMS
True-False
1. Two of the earliest influences on current practice were Plato and Aristotle.
2. Child care legislation in the 1980s has taken the form of “comprehensive
bills.”
3. The purpose and focus of programs has been the same among sponsors.
4. Family day care homes serve more school-age children than infants and
toddlers.
5. By 1979, 80% of the states in the United States were serving pre-kinder-
garten children in public schools.
Multiple Choice
1. The person who has been called the “Father of Kindergarten” is _______.
a. Comenius b. Pestalozzi c. Rousseau d. Froebel
2. Jean Piaget is remembered for his theory of _______.
a. social and emotional development b. moral development
c. cognitive development d. physical development
3. The objectives of Head Start include all of the following except.
a. improving the child’s health
b. facilitating the child’s social and emotional development
c. teaching children to read
d. improving the child’s mental processes
4. The enactment of P.L. 99-457 demonstrates _______.
a. commitment to parent involvement
b. commitment to school-age child care
c. commitment to special needs children
d. commitment to the teaching profession