Information on: Sentence structure & types Phrases & Clauses Direct & Indirect Speech Concord & Register Ambiguity Punctuation marks Parts of Speech Synonyms & Antonyms Malapropism Comma Splice Error

1. LANGUAGE NOTES:

2. SENTENCE STRUCTURE:
A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.
A sentence must contain a subject (noun) and a finite verb.
 A verb which can stand alone with a noun and create a coherent sentence
Sentences are made up of a subject, verb and object.

3. WHAT IS A FINITE VERB?
FINITE VERB:
Can stand on its own and together with the subject it makes a
complete sentence.
EXAMPLES:
Anne reads.
John walked.

4. TYPES OF SENTENCES:
THERE ARE 4 TYPES OF SENTENCES:
 Statements – supply information
 E.g. Shayne is going to school.
 Questions – ask for information
 Where are you going?
 Exclamations – Express emotions e.g. surprise, fear, excitement.
 Its a ghost!
 Commands – Give orders or instructions.
 Do not enter through this door.

5. SENTENCES ARE ALSO CLASSIFIED AS:
A simple sentence = 1 independent clause
A compound sentence = 2 independent clauses
A complex sentence = 1 main clause joined to 1 subordinate clause

6. SIMPLE SENTENCE
has one finite verb and deals with one idea.
 E.g. Anne reads a book.

7. COMPOUND SENTENCE:
has two or more finite verbs. May be made up by two or more simple
sentences joined together by a coordinating conjunction.
E.g. for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so = FANBOYS
To see how to form a compound sentence this way, look at these two
simple sentences:
1. Tom read the
novel.
1. His friend saw the
movie.
1. Tom read the novel, but his
friend saw the movie.

8. COMPLEX SENTENCE:
contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses which
provide additional information. They are joined by subordinating
conjunctions.
e.g. After, although, because, before, unless, which.
EXAMPLE OF A COMPLEX SENTENCE:
Main clause: “A child should stay home from school”
Subordinate clause: “who has chickenpox”
A child who has chickenpox should stay home from school.

9. LANGUAGE ACTIVITY: SENTENCE
STRUCTURE
1. Write one example of the following:
 A simple sentence
 A compound sentence
 A complex sentence
2. Using your knowledge of sentences, write a paragraph which
includes:
 2 simple sentences – on their own.
 1 compound sentence
 1 complex sentence
 IN ANY ORDER.

10. SENTENCE TYPE ACTIVITY 2:
1. Combine the following simple sentences into compound sentences:
A) Sebastian laughed at the joke. Anthony was not amused.
B) Henry walked across the stage. Chris greeted Henry warmly.
2. Combine the following into complex sentences.
A) Bruce shouted loudly. Someone had stepped on his toes.
B) Natasha kicked the door down. Clint was inside.

11. ANSWERS:
1. Write one example of the following:
 A simple sentence: Sebastian laughed at the joke.
 A compound sentence: Sebastian laughed at the joke, but Anthony was not amused.
 A complex sentence: Henry walked across the road, after seeing the paparazzi.
2. Using your knowledge of sentences, write a paragraph which
includes:
 2 simple sentences – on their own.
 1 compound sentence
 1 complex sentence
 IN ANY ORDER.

12. 2 simple sentences – on their own.
1 compound sentence
1 complex sentence
The boy read a book. He borrowed it
from the library, and it was very
interesting. The boy’s mother was
happy to see him read. Reading novels
is a good way to improve vocabulary,
while having fun with exciting
storylines.

14. SENTENCE TYPE ACTIVITY 2:
1. Combine the following simple sentences into compound sentences:
A) Sebastian laughed at the joke, but Anthony was not amused.
B) Henry walked across the stage, and Chris greeted him warmly.
2. Combine the following into complex sentences.
A) Bruce shouted loudly, because someone had stepped on his toes.
B) Natasha kicked the door down, because Clint was inside.

15. PHRASES:
A phrase is a group of words without a finite verb.
It can never stand alone because a phrase is
ALWAYS PART OF A SENTENCE.
 E.g. The model with the dazzling smile came from Durban.
 “with the dazzling smile” makes no sense on its own.

16. CLAUSES:
A clause is a group of words containing a finite verb.
Always contains a finite verb and is sensibly arranged within a
sentence.
TWO TYPES OF CLAUSES:
 Main: Is the main idea of the sentence and can sensibly stand alone.
 Subordinate clauses: Always contains a verb but cannot stand alone. It depends on
the main clause for its meaning.
The van came to a halt after it ran out of petrol.

17. DIRECT SPEECH:
Direct speech uses the exact words of the speaker, whereas indirect/reported
speech is the words re-spoken by a third person.
E.G. My teacher said, “Well done on your test!”
*****************************************
DIRECT SPEECH IS MADE UP OF TWO PARTS:
a) The clause which indicates the speaker and contains a verb such as ‘said’ or
‘asked’.
e.g. My teacher said,
AND
b)The actual words that are spoken which are enclosed in quotation marks.
e.g. “Well done on your test!”

18. DIRECT SPEECH HAS DIFFERENT
FORMATS:
a) The verb comes before the spoken words:
e.g. The supporters shouted, “Manchester United forever!”
b) The spoken words come first:
e.g. “This is the greatest match I have ever seen!” yelled the
excited spectator.
c) The verb may be in the middle of the sentence, splitting the spoken
words . The second sentence will not begin with a capital letter.
e.g. “Come on boys!” shouted the captain, “the trophy’s ours!”

19. INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH
The words spoken by the first person are now re-told to another.
EXAMPLES:
1. DIRECT: Anne said: “I loved travelling in Mauritius”
REPORTED: Anne said that she loved travelling in Mauritius.
2. DIRECT: Simon asked: “May I have some ice cream?”
INDIRECT: Simon asked if he could have some ice cream.

20. WHEN CHANGING A SENTENCE FROM
DIRECT TO INDIRECT SPEECH, IT IS
IMPORTANT TO NOTE THE FOLLOWING:
•Remove the inverted commas, question marks, exclamation marks and
capital letters.
•Change pronouns to ensure the meaning remains the same.
•Insert the word ‘that’ to link the verb (said/says) to the spoken words.
•Insert the words ‘if’ or ‘whether’ after the verb.

21. REGISTER:
Register is the suitability of style, tone and word choice.
Depending on the situation, word choice and language will differ:
 When speaking or writing to peers/family, the register is informal and relaxed.
 However, communicating with the principal for example, is much more formal and
reserved.
The register depends on the type of communication and its purpose,
setting and audience

22. CONCORD:
The words in a sentence must match or agree with one another.
oThe subject and verb must agree:
 (a singular subject requires a singular verb)
 E.g. Roger has many friends.
 (a plural subject requires a plural verb)
 E.g. The children have many friends.
oThe noun and pronoun must agree:
• E.g. The woman paid for her ticket = Singular
• The women paid for their tickets = Plural

23. AMBIGUITY:
Refers to a sentence in which more than one meaning is possible. This
means when we hear or read an ambiguous sentence, we are not
sure which meaning the writer intended.
E.g. Exams in progress. Do not pass
1: Students are currently writing exams and will not get a
passing grade.
2: There is an exam occurring – please do not walk past.
Ambiguity can also occur when the sentence is written using the
incorrect word order.

24. PUNCTUATION MARKS:
Punctuation marks allow the text to be read easily and sensibly.
There are some punctuation marks that are seen more often than
others.
It is important to know the name and function of each punctuation
mark.

25. Punctuation
mark: Function: Examples:
Capital
Letters
∙ At the start of all sentences
∙ Proper nouns are
capitalised
∙ Main words in titles of
films and books are
capitalised
∙ Susan went to
town.
∙ Hillcrest, John,
∙ Things Fall Apart
Full stops ∙ End of the sentence
∙ After some abbreviations
∙ Jane played in
the garden.
∙ Prof. abbr. e.g.

26. Punctuation
mark: Function: Examples:
Question
marks
∙ At the end of a
question
∙ Who is your favourite
actor?
Exclamation
marks
∙ Used after
exclamations or
interjections
∙ Strengthens the
tone of a sentence
∙ Used after
sentences
containing
emotions
∙ Ouch!
∙ The child screamed
when she saw a frog.
∙ “I’m terrified!”

27. Punctuation
mark:
Function: Examples:
Semi-colons ∙ Long pause that balances
two equally important
ideas
∙ Indicates opposite ideas
∙ Joins two main clauses
∙ Can be replaced by a full
stop or conjunctions
∙ I went by car; i should have
flown.
∙ In summer we swim; in
winter we skate.
∙ She worked hard for her
test; she had nothing to
fear.
Colons ∙ Indicates that a list is to
follow
∙ Introduces a quote
∙ In dialogues, the colon
follows the speakers name
∙ I need to buy: eggs, milk,
cheese and caviar.
∙ Eleanor Roosevelt said:
“The future belongs to
those who believe in the
beauty of their dreams.”
∙ Stephen: We’re going to get
caught!

28. Punctuation
mark:
Function: Examples:
Brackets ∙ Usually an explanation,
aside or additional
information.
∙ Possible to use commas or
dashes in place of brackets
∙ My Chihuahua (the smallest dog
in the world) can fit into a teacup.
∙ My Chihuahua, the smallest dog
in the world, can fit into a teacup.
Commas ∙ Used to separate items in a
list
∙ Shows where one phrase
ends and another begins
∙ Indicates additional
information
∙ Used before words like
however and nevertheless
∙ We bought new books, pens and
pencils for school.
∙ Roger Federer won his match, to
the delight of the fans.
∙ Mr Smith, the principal,
addressed the pupils yesterday.
∙ She was, however, late for her
interview and lost the job.

29. Punctuation
mark
Function: Examples
Quotation
marks/Inver
ted commas
∙ Indicates direct speech
∙ To quote someone else’s
words
∙ Mr Smith said: “You need to
work harder.”
∙ Martin Luther King said: “I
have a dream!”
Ellipsis ∙ Indicates a sentence is
incomplete or
something has been left
out.
∙ He walked to the edge of the
cliff and ...
Hyphen ∙ Links prefixes to words
or links two words to
form a compound word
∙ Anti-freeze, pre-school
Apostrophe ∙ Either shows possession
∙ Or omission/contraction
∙ The family’s car; the boys’
books
∙ I +am = I’m; You +have = You’ve

30. PARTS OF SPEECH

31. Nouns:
 Common Nouns – Names of any tangible objects e.g. Wall, car, desk, window
 Proper Nouns – Names of people, places or brands e.g. Samantha, France, Ferrari
 Abstract Nouns – Names of emotions or characteristics e.g. Anger, love, honesty, kindness
 Collective Nouns – names of groups e.g. A swarm of bees,
Pronouns:
 Replaces a noun e.g. He, She, Him, Her, Their
Adjectives:
 Words which describe a noun e.g. Beautiful, strong, fast
Verb:
 Describes what the noun is doing e.g. Running, walking, hurrying
Adverb:
 describes how the noun is doing the action e.g. Quickly, slowly, in a panic
Preposition:
 describes the relationship between nouns e.g. In, on, by, under, across, beneath
Conjunction:
 joins two simple sentences together (Co-ordinating & subordinating)
Articles:
 There are only 3 (The, A, An) – these are placed before a noun

32. PARTS OF SPEECH ACTIVITY
Identify the parts of speech in the following sentences:
1. Eddy – Proper noun walked - verb quickly - adverb to - preposition
school – common noun.
2. Brett – Proper noun shouted – verb at – preposition his - pronoun
sister – common noun.
3. The - article boys – common noun sat - verb behind - preposition
Sebastian’s – proper noun house – common noun and - conjunction
drank - verb juice – common noun.
4. A flock of birds – collective noun flew – verb past – preposition
Henry’s – Proper Noun plane – common noun.
5. Chris – Proper noun rollerbladed - verb down - preposition the -
article road – common noun and - conjunction crashed – verb into -
preposition his - pronoun brother – common noun.

33. SYNONYMS & ANTONYMS
A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same
as another word or phrase in the same language.
 For example, shut is a synonym of close.
An antonym is a word opposite in meaning to another.
 For example, bad and good.

34. MALAPROPISM
A malapropism is the mistaken use of a word in place of a similar-
sounding one, often with an amusing effect.
Some examples:
1. Rainy weather can be hard on the sciences. (sinuses)
2. Alice said she couldn't eat crabs or any other crushed Asians. (crustaceans)
3. I have no delusions to the past. (allusions)
4. You could have knocked me over with a fender. (feather)
5. You lead the way and we'll precede. (proceed)
6. Unfortunately, my affluence over my niece is very small. (influence)
7. A rolling stone gathers no moths. (moss)
8. Good punctuation means not to be late. (punctuality)

35. THE COMMA SPLICE ERROR:
E.G. Tom read the novel, his friend saw the movie.
HOW TO CORRECT THE COMMA SPLICE ERROR:
Separate the sentence into two:
Tom read the novel. His friend saw the movie.
Use a semi-colon or conjunction instead of the comma:
Tom read the novel; his friend saw the movie.
Tom read the novel but his friend saw the movie.
When you join two independent clauses with a comma and no conjunction, it’s called
a comma splice.