Here we take a close look at hedging, and other important moves in the discussion and conclusion sections.

1. Discussing and concluding
Prof. Dr. Ron Martinez
PRPPG7000 - Academic Writing in English

2. Syllabus outline
• 28/08 - Introduction
• 04/09 - IMRaD, Most common errors,
electronic tools
• 11/09 - Strategic planning for your article:
CARS and other approaches
• 18/09 - Title, Abstract e Introduction
• 25/09 - Writing your Introduction
• 02/10 - Coherence, cohesion and clarity, and
use of authorial voice
• 09/10 - (Introduction due) The Method
section
• 16/10- The (Results and) Discussion section
• 23/10 - (Introduction peer feedback due)
Discussing and Concluding
• 30/10 - Writing (no class)
• 06/11 - (1st draft article due) Students
exchange articles (no class)
• 13/11 - Special guest speaker
• 20/11 - (1st draft peer feedback due)
Plagiarism, the submission process
• 18/12 - Final draft of full article due (send
also to “orientador”, with evaluation form)
• 29/01/2020 - Evaluation form due from
orientador

3. Introduction peer feedback will be
returned tomorrow

4. Today’s Homework
• Download and read the article on our class
webpage. What elements discussed in today’s class
are present? Which are missing? (Respond on
Formative.)
• Remember to complete feedback on Peer
Grade.
• Write about your feedback experience on
Formative.
• If time: Try outlining the rest of your article.

5. Comment from a student
“I had never before made contributions to an article proposal for
publication. I had the honor of feeling ‘proofreader’. What I liked about
the experience is that I had the opportunity to evaluate / comment on
two works of two completely different subjects. It was interesting to
notice gaps, inconsistent phrases and give meaning to them, to realize
what was missing and what was unnecessary in subjects from different
areas from mine.”

6. Student comment:
“Achei divertido ler coisas que outras pessoas escreveram e poder
opinar sobre isso. Pena que acabamos lendo algo que não é da nossa
área, então fica meio confuso de entender as introduções, mas
acredito que isso sirva de alerta para nós mesmo, afinal, precisamos
estar atentos ao que iremos escrever, e levar em consideração que
nem sempre quem irá ler o nosso artigo, é alguém que entende do
assunto.”

7. Student comment:
“A experiência foi muito positiva. Eu já havia realizado correção de
prova e comentários a respeito das questões de outros colegas, mas a
experiência de dar um feedback sobre um artigo é totalmente diferente.
Pelo menos para mim, dar o feedback me fez repensar na minha
escrita e no que eu poderia ter feito diferente. Certamente, só de dar
esses feedbacks eu já faria (e farei) alterações na minha introdução.”

8. Student comment:
“I was impressed how much I enjoyed reading the introduction of
colleagues and being able to evaluate and contribute to their writing. I
found it very interesting to be able to see clearly in these texts what we
learned in class, and realize that an outside look can be very useful. I'm
sure I couldn't have that clear vision when I wrote my own introduction,
but analyzing my colleagues' text helped me to see better my own
writing. I am sure in the next introductions I will write with more
attention and make fewer mistakes.”

9. “Eu gostei do site e de que como ele funciona.
Nos dá uma ideia na prática de como as
revisões dos artigos acontecem.”

10. Presenting results continued...

11. What’s the problem?

15. Back to that rejection....
Your disussion of the Discussion on Formative

16. From a student:
“Percebe-se que neste trabalho não há alusão à outras
pesquisas na área, durante a discussão a única referência
que aparece é a NBR, não tem outros autores. É um
trabalho que trata apenas os resultados de forma bem
técnica, sem aplicações muito práticas, embora fale da
importância do uso do material na construção civil.”

17. Student comment:
Na seção "results and discussion" do artigo rejeitado o
autor só apresenta os resultados do estudo. O autor não
conecta a introdução com a discussão revisitando pontos
levantados, não compara a pesquisa com outros estudos e
não fala de possíveis limitações da pesquisa abrindo uma
brecha para novos estudos. Somente na conclusão
aparece uma possível aplicação prática do resultado
obtido, ou seja, o uso do material desenvolvido na
construção civil.

18. Another comment:
Move 1 and move 2 of CARS are missing. In the
Discussion topic, I have identified practically none of the six
common elements. The discussion is very descriptive
missing the discussion itself. In the conclusion topic, there
are some implications on points raised in the introduction,
but there is a lack of expanding, explaining or extrapolating
the initial discussion. Thus, this article needs to be more
developed to include the theorization of the results. Also, it
is important to write about the limitations.

19. “Results” or “Results and discussion”?
Should you
separate them?

20. “Readers must be able to
distinguish what you found
from what you think.” (p. 70)

21. 3 types of results presentation:
1. The data (i.e. the results themselves, the
numbers and figures)
2.Inferences (e.g. what your data mean
statistically)
3.Interpretation (your explanation of what
the results mean)

25. Discussion : 6 common elements
!

26. Discussion : 6 common elements
!
Revisit points raised

27. Discussion : 6 common elements
!
Revisit points raised
in the Introduction
Compare with other
studies

28. Discussion : 6 common elements
!
Revisit points raised
in the Introduction
Compare with other
studies
Expand, explain,
extrapolate

29. Discussion : 6 common elements
!
Revisit points raised
in the Introduction
Compare with other
studies
Expand, explain,
extrapolate
Talk about applications
and practical implications

30. Discussion : 6 common elements
!
Revisit points raised
in the Introduction
Compare with other
studies
Expand, explain,
extrapolate
Talk about applications
and practical implications
Talk about limitations

31. Discussion : 6 common elements
!
Revisit points raised
in the Introduction
Compare with other
studies
Expand, explain,
extrapolate
Talk about applications
and practical implications
Talk about limitations
Talk about how the study
advances the area;
what is still needed

32. Another comment:
Move 1 and move 2 of CARS are missing. In the
Discussion topic, I have identified practically none of the six
common elements. The discussion is very descriptive
missing the discussion itself. In the conclusion topic, there
are some implications on points raised in the introduction,
but there is a lack of expanding, explaining or extrapolating
the initial discussion. Thus, this article needs to be more
developed to include the theorization of the results. Also, it
is important to write about the limitations.

33. LIMITATIONS "DEFECTS"

43. Abstract
Axillary body odor is individually specific and potentially a rich source of
information about its producer. Odor individuality partly results from genetic
individuality, but the influence of ecological factors such as eating habits are
another main source of odor variability. However, we know very little about how
particular dietary components shape our body odor. Here we tested the effect of
red meat consumption on body odor attractiveness. We used a balanced within-
subject experimental design. Seventeen male odor donors were on “meat” or
“nonmeat” diet for 2 weeks wearing axillary pads to collect body odor during the
final 24 h of the diet. Fresh odor samples were assessed for their pleasantness,
attractiveness, masculinity, and intensity by 30 women not using hormonal
contraceptives. We repeated the same procedure a month later with the same
odor donors, each on the opposite diet than before. Results of repeated measures
analysis of variance showed that the odor of donors when on the nonmeat diet
was judged as significantly more attractive, more pleasant, and less intense. This
suggests that red meat consumption has a negative impact on perceived body
odor hedonicity.

44. Abstract
Axillary body odor is individually specific and potentially a rich
source of information about its producer. Odor individuality partly
results from genetic individuality, but the influence of ecological
factors such as eating habits are another main source of odor
variability. However, we know very little about how particular dietary
components shape our body odor. Here we tested the effect of red meat
consumption on body odor attractiveness. We used a balanced within-subject
experimental design. Seventeen male odor donors were on “meat” or “nonmeat”
diet for 2 weeks wearing axillary pads to collect body odor during the final 24 h of
the diet. Fresh odor samples were assessed for their pleasantness, attractiveness,
masculinity, and intensity by 30 women not using hormonal contraceptives. We
repeated the same procedure a month later with the same odor donors, each on
the opposite diet than before. Results of repeated measures analysis of variance
showed that the odor of donors when on the nonmeat diet was judged as
significantly more attractive, more pleasant, and less intense. This suggests that
red meat consumption has a negative impact on perceived body odor hedonicity.

45. Abstract
Axillary body odor is individually specific and potentially a rich source of
information about its producer. Odor individuality partly results from genetic
individuality, but the influence of ecological factors such as eating habits are
another main source of odor variability. However, we know very little
about how particular dietary components shape our body odor.
Here we tested the effect of red meat consumption on body odor attractiveness.
We used a balanced within-subject experimental design. Seventeen male odor
donors were on “meat” or “nonmeat” diet for 2 weeks wearing axillary pads to
collect body odor during the final 24 h of the diet. Fresh odor samples were
assessed for their pleasantness, attractiveness, masculinity, and intensity by 30
women not using hormonal contraceptives. We repeated the same procedure a
month later with the same odor donors, each on the opposite diet than before.
Results of repeated measures analysis of variance showed that the odor of donors
when on the nonmeat diet was judged as significantly more attractive, more
pleasant, and less intense. This suggests that red meat consumption has a
negative impact on perceived body odor hedonicity.

46. Abstract
Axillary body odor is individually specific and potentially a rich source of
information about its producer. Odor individuality partly results from genetic
individuality, but the influence of ecological factors such as eating habits are
another main source of odor variability. However, we know very little about how
particular dietary components shape our body odor. Here we tested the
effect of red meat consumption on body odor attractiveness. We
used a balanced within-subject experimental design. Seventeen male odor donors
were on “meat” or “nonmeat” diet for 2 weeks wearing axillary pads to collect
body odor during the final 24 h of the diet. Fresh odor samples were assessed for
their pleasantness, attractiveness, masculinity, and intensity by 30 women not
using hormonal contraceptives. We repeated the same procedure a month later
with the same odor donors, each on the opposite diet than before. Results of
repeated measures analysis of variance showed that the odor of donors when on
the nonmeat diet was judged as significantly more attractive, more pleasant, and
less intense. This suggests that red meat consumption has a negative impact on
perceived body odor hedonicity.

47. Abstract
Axillary body odor is individually specific and potentially a rich source of
information about its producer. Odor individuality partly results from genetic
individuality, but the influence of ecological factors such as eating habits are
another main source of odor variability. However, we know very little about how
particular dietary components shape our body odor. Here we tested the effect of
red meat consumption on body odor attractiveness. We used a balanced
within-subject experimental design. Seventeen male odor donors
were on “meat” or “nonmeat” diet for 2 weeks wearing axillary
pads to collect body odor during the final 24 h of the diet. Fresh
odor samples were assessed for their pleasantness, attractiveness,
masculinity, and intensity by 30 women not using hormonal
contraceptives. We repeated the same procedure a month later
with the same odor donors, each on the opposite diet than before.
Results of repeated measures analysis of variance showed that the odor of donors
when on the nonmeat diet was judged as significantly more attractive, more
pleasant, and less intense. This suggests that red meat consumption has a
negative impact on perceived body odor hedonicity.

48. Abstract
Axillary body odor is individually specific and potentially a rich source of
information about its producer. Odor individuality partly results from genetic
individuality, but the influence of ecological factors such as eating habits are
another main source of odor variability. However, we know very little about how
particular dietary components shape our body odor. Here we tested the effect of
red meat consumption on body odor attractiveness. We used a balanced within-
subject experimental design. Seventeen male odor donors were on “meat” or
“nonmeat” diet for 2 weeks wearing axillary pads to collect body odor during the
final 24 h of the diet. Fresh odor samples were assessed for their pleasantness,
attractiveness, masculinity, and intensity by 30 women not using hormonal
contraceptives. We repeated the same procedure a month later with the same
odor donors, each on the opposite diet than before. Results of repeated
measures analysis of variance showed that the odor of donors
when on the nonmeat diet was judged as significantly more
attractive, more pleasant, and less intense. This suggests that red meat
consumption has a negative impact on perceived body odor hedonicity.

49. Abstract
Axillary body odor is individually specific and potentially a rich source of
information about its producer. Odor individuality partly results from genetic
individuality, but the influence of ecological factors such as eating habits are
another main source of odor variability. However, we know very little about how
particular dietary components shape our body odor. Here we tested the effect of
red meat consumption on body odor attractiveness. We used a balanced within-
subject experimental design. Seventeen male odor donors were on “meat” or
“nonmeat” diet for 2 weeks wearing axillary pads to collect body odor during the
final 24 h of the diet. Fresh odor samples were assessed for their pleasantness,
attractiveness, masculinity, and intensity by 30 women not using hormonal
contraceptives. We repeated the same procedure a month later with the same
odor donors, each on the opposite diet than before. Results of repeated measures
analysis of variance showed that the odor of donors when on the nonmeat diet
was judged as significantly more attractive, more pleasant, and less intense. This
suggests that red meat consumption has a negative impact on
perceived body odor hedonicity.

50. Abstract
Axillary body odor is individually specific and potentially a rich source of
information about its producer. Odor individuality partly results from genetic
individuality, but the influence of ecological factors such as eating habits are
another main source of odor variability. However, we know very little about how
particular dietary components shape our body odor. Here we tested the effect of
red meat consumption on body odor attractiveness. We used a balanced within-
subject experimental design. Seventeen male odor donors were on “meat” or
“nonmeat” diet for 2 weeks wearing axillary pads to collect body odor during the
final 24 h of the diet. Fresh odor samples were assessed for their pleasantness,
attractiveness, masculinity, and intensity by 30 women not using hormonal
contraceptives. We repeated the same procedure a month later with the same
odor donors, each on the opposite diet than before. Results of repeated measures
analysis of variance showed that the odor of donors when on the nonmeat diet
was judged as significantly more attractive, more pleasant, and less intense. This
suggests that red meat consumption has a negative impact on
perceived body odor hedonicity.

51. From the Introduction

52. From the Introduction

53. From the Introduction

54. From the Introduction

55. From the Method section

56. From the Method section

58. Discussion
The results of this study show for the first time that red
meat consumption may have a perceivable impact on
axillary body odor. Odors of donors on the nonmeat
diet were judged as more pleasant, more attractive, and
less intense. This pattern was not influenced by raters'
menstrual cycle phase or partnership status.
The number of odor donors was relatively small (17
men). However, the nature of the experiment was
balanced and within subject. In other words, each rater
assessed some donors first in meat condition and some

59. Discussion
The results of this study show for the first time that red
meat consumption may have a perceivable impact on
axillary body odor. Odors of donors on the nonmeat
diet were judged as more pleasant, more attractive, and
less intense. This pattern was not influenced by raters'
menstrual cycle phase or partnership status.
The number of odor donors was relatively small (17
men). However, the nature of the experiment was
balanced and within subject. In other words, each rater
assessed some donors first in meat condition and some

60. Discussion
The results of this study show for the first time that red
meat consumption may have a perceivable impact on
axillary body odor. Odors of donors on the nonmeat
diet were judged as more pleasant, more attractive, and
less intense. This pattern was not influenced by raters'
menstrual cycle phase or partnership status.
The number of odor donors was relatively small (17
men). However, the nature of the experiment was
balanced and within subject. In other words, each rater
assessed some donors first in meat condition and some

62. The "Naysayer"
1. In the "Discussion" section (online), underline/highlight
parts that were probably written thinking of the
"Naysayer".
2. Compare with others.

63. WHERE MANY AUTHORS STOP

64. DISCUSSING WITH AWARENESS OF “NAYSAYER”

68. MAKING A CONCESSION

75. TIP: PRACTICE BEING A NAYSAYER
Ask your “orientador” if you can review
manuscripts together.

76. Discussion : 6 common elements
!
Revisit points raised
in the Introduction
Compare with other
studies
Expand, explain,
extrapolate
Talk about applications
and practical implications
Talk about limitations
Talk about how the study
advances the area;
what is still needed

78. !

82. “Hedging”: Examples
1. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This is because
umbrellas are easily lost.

83. “Hedging”: Examples
1. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This is because
umbrellas are easily lost.
2. Curitibanos often have many umbrellas. This is because
umbrellas are easily lost.

84. “Hedging”: Examples
1. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This is because
umbrellas are easily lost.
2. Curitibanos often have many umbrellas. This is because
umbrellas are easily lost.
3. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This may be because
umbrellas are easily lost.
4. Curitibanos are known to have many umbrellas. This is
because umbrellas can be easily lost.
5. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This is likely due to the
fact that umbrellas are easily lost.

85. “Hedging”: Examples
1. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This is because
umbrellas are easily lost.
2. Curitibanos often have many umbrellas. This is because
umbrellas are easily lost.
3. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This may be because
umbrellas are easily lost.
4. Curitibanos are known to have many umbrellas. This is
because umbrellas can be easily lost.
5. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This is likely due to the
fact that umbrellas are easily lost.

86. “Hedging”: Examples
1. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This is because
umbrellas are easily lost.
2. Curitibanos often have many umbrellas. This is because
umbrellas are easily lost.
3. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This may be because
umbrellas are easily lost.
4. Curitibanos are known to have many umbrellas. This is
because umbrellas can be easily lost.
5. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This is likely due to the
fact that umbrellas are easily lost.

87. “Hedging”: Examples
1. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This is because
umbrellas are easily lost.
2. Curitibanos often have many umbrellas. This is because
umbrellas are easily lost.
3. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This may be because
umbrellas are easily lost.
4. Curitibanos are known to have many umbrellas. This is
because umbrellas can be easily lost.
5. Curitibanos have many umbrellas. This is likely due to
the fact that umbrellas are easily lost.

88. Hedging: a definition
In academic writing, a “hedge” is a word
or phrase used by the author(s) to show
they are being careful about their claims.

90. Hedging (when discussing results)
Current knowledge allows us only to speculate what particular compounds and
metabolic processes are responsible for hedonic changes in body odor after
the meat consumption. We propose that it could be due to changes in amount
and/or relative abundance of aliphatic acids. The axillary region contains
abundant numbers of apocrine glands producing milky secretions. Fresh
apocrine secretion is odorless but is rapidly converted by axillary microflora to
odorous breakdown products. Of particular interest are corynobacteria A as
they metabolize fatty acids to short aliphatic acids (James et al. 2004).
Chromatographic examination of axillary sweat found a number of both
saturated and unsaturated and branched and nonbranched aliphatic acids
particularly of C5–C11 length (Zeng et al. 1991). If this is the case, we may
expect a correlation between the change in the odor and fat proportion in
meat.

91. Hedging (when discussing results)
Current knowledge allows us only to speculate what particular compounds
and metabolic processes are responsible for hedonic changes in body odor
after the meat consumption. We propose that it could be due to changes in
amount and/or relative abundance of aliphatic acids. The axillary region
contains abundant numbers of apocrine glands producing milky secretions.
Fresh apocrine secretion is odorless but is rapidly converted by axillary
microflora to odorous breakdown products. Of particular interest are
corynobacteria A as they metabolize fatty acids to short aliphatic acids (James
et al. 2004). Chromatographic examination of axillary sweat found a number of
both saturated and unsaturated and branched and nonbranched aliphatic
acids particularly of C5–C11 length (Zeng et al. 1991). If this is the case, we
may expect a correlation between the change in the odor and fat proportion in
meat.

92. Guiding the reader: Title, Abstract
and Introduction
Prof. Dr. Ron Martinez
PRPPG7000 - Academic Writing in English

93. Prof. Dr. Ron Martinez - UFPR

94. Prof. Dr. Ron Martinez - UFPR
CLAIM

95. Prof. Dr. Ron Martinez - UFPR
CLAIM
EVIDENCE

97. CLAIM

98. CLAIM
EVIDENCE?

99. BUILDING AN
ARGUMENT

100. DISCUSSION
INTRODUCTION
METHOD
RESULT
S
I.M.R.aD.
TITLE

101. DISCUSSION
INTRODUCTION
METHOD
RESULT
S
I.M.R.aD.
TITLE
EVIDENCE

102. DISCUSSION
INTRODUCTION
METHOD
RESULT
S
I.M.R.aD.
TITLE
EVIDENCE
CLAIM

103. DISCUSSION
INTRODUCTION
METHOD
RESULT
S
I.M.R.aD.
TITLE
EVIDENCE
CLAIM
EVIDENCE
CLAIM

104. Hedging (when discussing results)
Current knowledge allows us only to speculate what particular
compounds and metabolic processes are responsible for hedonic
changes in body odor after the meat consumption. We propose
that it could be due to changes in amount and/or relative
abundance of aliphatic acids. The axillary region contains
abundant numbers of apocrine glands producing milky
secretions. Fresh apocrine secretion is odorless but is rapidly
converted by axillary microflora to odorous breakdown products.
Of particular interest are corynobacteria A as they metabolize
fatty acids to short aliphatic acids (James et al. 2004).
Chromatographic examination of axillary sweat found a number
of both saturated and unsaturated and branched and
nonbranched aliphatic acids particularly of C5–C11 length (Zeng
et al. 1991). If this is the case, we may expect a correlation
between the change in the odor and fat proportion in meat.

105. Hedging
Current knowledge allows us only to speculate what particular compounds and
metabolic processes are responsible for hedonic changes in body odor after the
meat consumption. We propose that it could be due to changes in amount and/or
relative abundance of aliphatic acids. The axillary region contains abundant
numbers of apocrine glands producing milky secretions. Fresh apocrine secretion
is odorless but is rapidly converted by axillary microflora to odorous breakdown
products. Of particular interest are corynobacteria A as they metabolize fatty
acids to short aliphatic acids (James et al. 2004). Chromatographic examination of
axillary sweat found a number of both saturated and unsaturated and branched
and nonbranched aliphatic acids particularly of C5–C11 length (Zeng et al. 1991). If
this is the case, we may expect a correlation between the change in the odor and
fat proportion in meat.
CLAIM

106. Hedging
Current knowledge allows us only to speculate what particular compounds and
metabolic processes are responsible for hedonic changes in body odor after the
meat consumption. We propose that it could be due to changes in amount and/or
relative abundance of aliphatic acids. The axillary region contains
abundant numbers of apocrine glands producing milky
secretions. Fresh apocrine secretion is odorless but is rapidly
converted by axillary microflora to odorous breakdown products.
Of particular interest are corynobacteria A as they metabolize
fatty acids to short aliphatic acids (James et al. 2004).
Chromatographic examination of axillary sweat found a number
of both saturated and unsaturated and branched and
nonbranched aliphatic acids particularly of C5–C11 length (Zeng
et al. 1991). If this is the case, we may expect a correlation between the
CLAIM

107. Hedging
Current knowledge allows us only to speculate what particular compounds and
metabolic processes are responsible for hedonic changes in body odor after the
meat consumption. We propose that it could be due to changes in amount and/or
relative abundance of aliphatic acids. The axillary region contains abundant
numbers of apocrine glands producing milky secretions. Fresh apocrine secretion
is odorless but is rapidly converted by axillary microflora to odorous breakdown
products. Of particular interest are corynobacteria A as they metabolize fatty
acids to short aliphatic acids (James et al. 2004). Chromatographic examination of
axillary sweat found a number of both saturated and unsaturated and branched
and nonbranched aliphatic acids particularly of C5–C11 length (Zeng et al. 1991). If
this is the case, we may expect a correlation between the change in the odor and
fat proportion in meat.
CLAIM
EVIDENCE

108. Hedging
Current knowledge allows us only to speculate what particular compounds and
metabolic processes are responsible for hedonic changes in body odor after the
meat consumption. We propose that it could be due to changes in amount and/or
relative abundance of aliphatic acids. The axillary region contains abundant
numbers of apocrine glands producing milky secretions. Fresh apocrine secretion
is odorless but is rapidly converted by axillary microflora to odorous breakdown
products. Of particular interest are corynobacteria A as they metabolize fatty
acids to short aliphatic acids (James et al. 2004). Chromatographic examination of
axillary sweat found a number of both saturated and unsaturated and branched
and nonbranched aliphatic acids particularly of C5–C11 length (Zeng et al. 1991). If
this is the case, we may expect a correlation between the change in the odor and
fat proportion in meat.
CLAIM
“WARRANTING”

109. Some common hedges
MODALITY
• may
• can
• could
• might
• possibly
• likely
EFFECT/CAUSE
• cause / caused by
• attribute / attributable to
• due to
• affect / affected by
• related to
• (as) a result of
suggestseem / appearwould

110. Some common hedges
MODALITY
• may
• can
• could
• might
• possibly
• likely
EFFECT/CAUSE
• cause / caused by
• attribute / attributable to
• due to
• affect / affected by
• related to
• (as) a/the result of
+ BE
+ HAVE
suggestseem / appearwould

111. For example...

113. Some common hedges
MODALITY
• may
• can
• could
• might
• possibly
• likely
EFFECT/CAUSE
• cause / caused by
• attribute / attributable to
• due to
• affect / affected by
• related to
• (as) a/the result of
+ BE
+ HAVE
suggestseem / appearwould

114. Using hedges
• The unexpected result may have been caused by an underestimation of
Trump's popularity among mainstream media outlets.
• Traditionally democratic states that voted more republican in the
election is likely the result of heavier campaigning by Trump.
• The low voter turnout on election day is possibly attributable to
ambivalent feelings towards Hillary Clinton among democratic voters.
• The recent mass influx of Syrian refugees could have affected voter
sentiment in favor of Trump.
• In future elections, it may be useful to verify emotional stability and
cognitive functioning before allowing a candidate to run for president.

115. Some common hedges
MODALITY
• may
• can
• could
• might
• possibly
• likely
EFFECT/CAUSE
• cause / caused by
• attribute / attributable to
• due to
• affect / affected by
• related to
• (as) a/the result of
+ BE
+ HAVE
suggestseem / appearwould

116. Using hedges
• The unexpected result may have been caused by an underestimation of
Trump's popularity among mainstream media outlets.
• Traditionally democratic states that voted more republican in the
election is likely the result of heavier campaigning by Trump.
• The low voter turnout on election day is possibly attributable to
ambivalent feelings towards Hillary Clinton among democratic voters.
• The recent mass influx of Syrian refugees could have affected voter
sentiment in favor of Trump.
• In future elections, it may be useful to verify emotional stability and
cogniti.

117. Some common hedges
MODALITY
• may
• can
• could
• might
• possibly
• likely
EFFECT/CAUSE
• cause / caused by
• attribute / attributable to
• due to
• affect / affected by
• related to
• (as) a/the result of
+ BE
+ HAVE
suggestseem / appearwould

118. Using hedges
• The unexpected result may have been caused by an underestimation of
Trump's popularity among mainstream media outlets.
• Traditionally democratic states that voted more republican in the
election is likely the result of heavier campaigning by Trump.
• The low voter turnout on election day is possibly attributable to
ambivalent feelings towards Hillary Clinton among democratic voters.
• The recent mass influx of Syrian refugees could have affected voter
sentiment in favor of Trump.
• In future elections, it may be useful to verify emotional stability and
cognit.

119. Some common hedges
MODALITY
• may
• can
• could
• might
• possibly
• likely
EFFECT/CAUSE
• cause / caused by
• attribute / attributable to
• due to
• affect / affected by
• related to
• (as) a/the result of
+ BE
+ HAVE
suggestseem / appearwould

120. Using hedges
• The unexpected result may have been caused by an underestimation of
Trump's popularity among mainstream media outlets.
• Traditionally democratic states that voted more republican in the
election is likely the result of heavier campaigning by Trump.
• The low voter turnout on election day is possibly attributable to
ambivalent feelings towards Hillary Clinton among democratic voters.
• There is suspicion that the elections could have affected by foreign
intervention in social media.
• In future elections, it may be useful to verify emotional stability and
cognitive fu

121. Some common hedges
MODALITY
• may
• can
• could
• might
• possibly
• likely
EFFECT/CAUSE
• cause / caused by
• attribute / attributable to
• due to
• affect / affected by
• related to
• (as) a/the result of
+ BE
+ HAVE
suggestseem / appearwould

122. Using hedges
• The unexpected result may have been caused by an underestimation of
Trump's popularity among mainstream media outlets.
• Traditionally democratic states that voted more republican in the
election is likely the result of heavier campaigning by Trump.
• The low voter turnout on election day is possibly attributable to
ambivalent feelings towards Hillary Clinton among democratic voters.
• There is suspicion that the elections could have affected by foreign
intervention in social media.
• The success of Trump may be interpreted as a shift in sentiment away
from “politics as usual.”

123. Some common hedges
MODALITY
• may
• can
• could
• might
• possibly
• likely
EFFECT/CAUSE
• cause / caused by
• attribute / attributable to
• due to
• affect / affected by
• related to
• (as) a/the result of
+ BE
+ HAVE
suggestseem / appearwould

124. Some common hedges
MODALITY
• may
• can
• could
• might
• possibly
• likely
EFFECT/CAUSE
• cause / caused by
• attribute / attributable to
• due to
• affect / affected by
• related to
• (as) a/the result of
+ BE
+ HAVE
suggestseem / appearwould

125. Some common hedges
MODALITY
• may
• can
• could
• might
• possibly
• likely
EFFECT/CAUSE
• cause / caused by
• attribute / attributable to
• due to
• affect / affected by
• related to
• (as) a/the result of
+ BE
+ HAVE
suggestseem / appearwould

126. Your turn!

127. Last class...

129. Concluding...

130. How to conclude?
• Separate section? ("Conclusion")
• Integrated into the Discussion?
• How to signal you are “closing”?
• What should you include?

131. First: check the journal (you
want to submit to)

143. Can the Discussion and Conclusion be
integrated?

163. By next class (13/11):
1. Add your (draft!!!) Discussion/Conclusion section to
your Introduction. Include “hedging” where
appropriate.
2. By 06/11: Submit your (draft!!!) article to
PeerGrade.
3. This assignment counts towards your participation
grade. (Don’t worry if it’s not “complete.”)