1. UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND REGIONAL PLANNING
NAME: RANSFORD GYAMBRAH
THESIS PAPER
22ND
JANUARY, 2016

2. UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN GHANA
{CASE STUDY OF TULLOW OIL PLC} GHANA.
BY
RANSFORD GYAMBRAH
A Dissertation Presented to the University of Cape Coast in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of the MSc in Disaster and Risk Management.

3. ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………… II
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………….. VI
DESIGN / METHODOLOGY / APPROACH……………………………………………. VII
FINDINGS/RESULTS……………………………………………………………………. VII
CHAPTER ONE - BACKGROUND OF STUDY
1.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY….………………………………………………….. 1
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY………………………………………………………….. 1
1.2 SOURCE OF HAZARDOUS WASTE…………………………………….…..…... 2
1.3 THE CHALLENGE…………………………………………………………… 2
1.4 HAZARDOUSWASTEGENERATEDFROMSELECTEDINDUSTRIES ANDITS
CHARACTERISTICS………………………………………………………………….... 3
1.5 EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH…………………….. 5
1.6 BASEL CONVENTION…………………………………………………………… 6
1.7 E-WASTE GENERATION AND RECYCLING DATA………………………….. 10
1.8 MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTES………………………………………………… 11
1.8 HAZARDOUS AND ELECTRONIC WASTE CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT BILL,
2011………………………………………………………………………………… 14
CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………... 16
2.1 WHAT IS WASTE……………………………………………………………….. 16
2.3 HAZARDOUS WASTE………………………………………………………….. 16
2.4 CHARACTERISTIC HAZARDOUS WASTES………………………………… 17

4. iii
2.5 HAZARDOUS WASTE IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTION IN GHANA……….... 20
2.6 IMPACT OF HAZARDOUS WASTE ON HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENT….... 22
2.7 THE CHALLENGES FACING THE HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT.... 23
CHAPTER THREE - METHODOLOGY
3.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………… 24
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN……………………………………………………………. 24
3.2 THE STUDY AREA……………………………………………………………… 24
3.3 SOURCES OF DATA……………………………………………………….……. 25
3.4 INSTRUMENTS (MODES OF DATA COLLECTION)………………………… 25
3.5 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS……………………………………..…. 26
CHAPTER FOUR - DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.0 WHY HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATED BY TULLOW OIL PLC. IS A PROBLEM IN
GHANA………………………………………………………………………………….. 27
4.1 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT………... 29
4.2 ACTIVATED CARBON………………………………………………………… 29
4.3 BIOREMEDIATION…………………………………………………………….. 29
4.4 PHYTOREMEDIATION…………………………………………………….….. 31
4.5 INCINERATION………………………………………………………………... 31
4.6 ANAEROBIC THERMAL DESORPTION UNIT (ATDU)…………………..... 33
4.7 ADVANTAGES OF ATDU…………………………………………………….. 41
4.8 DISADVANTAGES…………………………………………………………….. 41

5. iv
4.9 DRILLING WASTE MANAGEMENT (DWM) IN THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR… 42
CHAPTER FIVE – RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
5.0 RECOMMENDATION……………………………………………………….. 43
5.1 WASTE MANAGEMNT CYCLE…………………………………………..... 43
5.2 IMPLEMENTATION OF BAMAKO/BASEL CONVENTION AS A
RECOMMENDATION TO MANAGE HAZARDOUS WASTE………….... 47
5.3 OTHER CONVENTIONS IN MANAGING HAZARDOUS WASTE…….... 47
5.4 MANAGEMENT OPTIONS OF E-WASTE……………………………….... 47
5.5 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE GOVERNMENT………………………….... 47
5.6 RESPONSIBILITY AND ROLE OF INDUSTRIES……………………….... 49
5.7 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CITIZEN……………………………………. 50
5.8 RECOMMENDATION FOR CONTROLLING OTHER HAZARDOUS MATERIALS IN
THE OIL AND GAS SECTOR……………….……………………………… 50
5.9 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………...... 51
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1 Plastic…………………………………………………..…………....... 3
Fig. 2 E-Waste………………………………………..................................... 4
Fig. 3 Bioremediation………………………………………………….......... 30
Fig. 4 Oily Mud……………………………………………………….…....... 30

6. v
Fig. 5 Phytoremediation…………………………………………………...... 31
Fig. 6 Incineration………………………………………............................... 32
Fig. 7 Anaerobic Thermal Desorption Unit (ATDU) …………......................... 32
Fig. 8 Advantages of ATDU………………………………………............. 41
Fig. 9 Waste Management Cycle…………………………………….…...... 43
LIST OF TABLES
Table I Effects of E-Waste constituent on health………………………........ 7
Table 2 Other Industries Producing Waste Origin………………………..….. 9
Table 3 Total Hazardous Waste generated within two years Period..……….. 28
Table 4 Total amount paid for hazardous waste treatment………….............. 28
LIST OF CHART
Chart 1 E-Waste Generation and Recycling Data in the U.S. ……………….10
Chart 2 A Diagrame Showing the total Hazardous Waste Generated by Tullow Oil Plc for
two years period……………………………...………………………27
Chart 3 Diagrame showing total amount paid by Tullow Oil Plc for Hazardous Waste
Treatment……………………………………..……………….……..28
References………………………………………………………………………….. 53

7. vi
ABSTRACT
Although Ghana is the model country of West Africa for its political and economic reform, but her
hazardous waste management is far from its comparison, although the government have
regulations in- place, but in practice, the lack of follow up, infrastructure, trained personnel and
financial capability created a stumbling block for its hazardous waste steadfast implementation.
Despite many international financial help, the local government is still insufficiently equipped to
adequately manage the process, resulting in major environment, ecological and health problems.
Mining, consumerization contributes to high amount of plastic and e-waste which include trans-
boundary importation of e-waste remain the top of the list of hazardous waste generated in Ghana.
Effective education, training of both public and skill training for proper management is desperately
needed, in addition to follow thought check and control, more favourable regulations and incentive
for investor to take part in hazardous waste management are some of the crucial steps that the
government of Ghana must put in place immediately in order to save her land and water from
further deterioration and improve lives of their people and generate income, improve economy
while doing so.

8. vii
DESIGN /METHODOLOGY /APPROACH
The paper is based on a country as a case namely Ghana. Structured and unstructured data are
collected in a research conducted by the group. This involves conducting structured interviews
with key informants in Hazardous waste management experts in Ghana such as Zeal
Environmental Limited and Zoil Services Limited. The focus is on obtaining factual information
that is cross checked with other sources.
Findings/Results
The paper shows that some types of Hazardous waste generated in Ghana, the various technology
or method used in treating or managing hazardous waste without any adverse effect to the
environment. Also whether Ghana as a country has an effective hazardous waste management
policy and if there is, are the policy are being followed to what extent.
The most emphasized challenge is the effectiveness of managing hazardous waste in Ghana
without any adverse effect to current and future environment.

9. 1
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 BACKGROUND
Ghana lies in West Africa bordering Cote D’Ivoier on the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to
the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It lies between latitudes 8° N and 2°W longitude. It is
located in the sub-Saharan Africa. Ghana’s topography mainly consists of low plains but in south-
central have plateau. The high Mountain is Afadjato at 880 meter high. It has a land area of
238,535 sq. km and a coastline line of 530km along the Gulf of Guinea. Ghana is the most
populated countries in Western Africa with a population of 27million, with density of 101.5/km2
Largest city being Accra, with 2,573 million (2011estimated) and Kumasi being the next most
populated with about 2,019million (2011 estimated).
Weather and rainfall
Tropical climate, although with wet and dry season but it is mainly warm and dry in the southeast,
hot and humid in the southwest and hot and dry in the north. Average annual temperature with low
of 20.50C and high of 260C. Annual rainfall range around 736.6 mm (29”).
Natural Resources and industries
It is rich in mineral resources (agricultural, arable land, forest, gold, diamonds, manganese and
bauxite), now somewhat stabilized political situation, the country is seen as a model for political
and economic reform in Africa.
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
 To know the types of hazardous waste generated in Ghana.
 To know the impacts of hazardous waste generated in Ghana.
 To find out Ghana can also managed E-Waste in Ghana and the effect on Ghana economy
 To find out whether hazardous waste bye product can be reused for any other activity or
product in Ghana.
 To find the best alternative method(s) of treatment of hazardous waste in a more
environmental friendly manner

10. 2
 To also find out whether there are established laws and regulation by Ghana government in
attempt to solve hazardous waste especially hazardous waste generated by Ghana’s oil and
gas operators and E-waste.
 And finally try to find answers to; why conventions passed either Africa countries and the
World to managed E-waste and other hazardous waste are not working.
1.2 Source of Hazardous waste
Industries in Ghana include food products, beverages, tobacco, textiles, dye, clothes, footwear,
glass, plastic, timber and wood products, Paper and Pulp, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, and
products and aluminum processing. Almost all of them began as state-owned enterprises, with
urban development, the consumerization has contributed to hazardous waste accumulation in the
country that include electrical, electronic, plastic, and other organic waste. In addition, Ghana
importation of “recycle electronic and electric” very profitable business that thrive in Ghana, at the
same time creates serious health problem when handled without proper precautions Ghana and
other African cities according to a UN report generated 12% paper waste, 10% plastic, glass and
metals and 80% organic waste.
1.3 The Challenge
Although Ghana is in gradual evolution towards “modern” standards of waste management,
however with development and lack on infrastructure, regulations and majority of the population
still living in poverty, hazardous waste management remain a major challenge. Collection of waste
are limited to paying customers within the urban cities while lack of funding, knowledge and weak
check and control instrumentation adding on uneducated population all of which contribute to
difficulties of managing Hazardous Waste Management in Ghana. As a result of poor waste
management, the risk of infectious diseases in Ghana is very high. Waterborne disease includes
bacterial and protozoa diarrhea, hepatitis A and typhoid fever. Wide spread of Malaria, water
related diseases include schistosomiasis, respiratory diseases and meningococcal meningitis been
reported. While the major urban centers are well served with medical service, rural areas are often
without modern facilities of health care. Patients in these areas rely on traditional medicine or
travel great distance for care.

11. 3
1.4Hazardouswastegeneratedfromselectedindustries andits characteristic.
Fig. 1
 Plastic
Plastic waste generated in Ghana comes from domestic, commercial and industrial waste. There
are 140 plastic companies in Ghana, mostly located in the south, mostly small scale with limited
waste management system. Plastic are made from a variety of chemical ranging from polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene and in additional, lead and cadmium pigment are also used as
additive in the manufacturing process. Commonly found material such as: PET for bottles,
HDPE/LDPE used in carry bags and container, PPE for medicine bottle and packing film, PS use
in foam packing, tea cup, us in both Domestic and commercial waste plastic is one of the biggest
generators in Ghana, and posted a huge problem for the government. Open dump and open burning
is a common practice; burning, carbon monoxide, chlorine, HCL, dioxin, amines, furans, nitrides,
stypene, benzenes 1,3 butadiene, CC4 and acetaldehyde are emitted from the burning process.
Land fill can risk long terms contamination of solid and ground water by the additives and
breakdown of products in the plastic.

12. 4
Fig. 2
 E-Waste
Industrial revolution followed by the advances in information technology during the last century
has radically changed people's lifestyle. Although this development has helped the human race,
mismanagement has led to new problems of contamination and pollution. The technical prowess
acquired during the last century has posed a new challenge in the management of wastes. For
example, personal computers (PCs) contain certain components, which are highly toxic, such as
chlorinated and brominated substances, toxic gases, toxic metals, biologically active materials,
acids, plastics and plastic additives. The hazardous content of these materials pose an
environmental and health threat. Thus proper management is necessary while disposing or
recycling e-wastes. These days computer has become most common and widely used gadget in all
kinds of activities ranging from schools, residences, offices to manufacturing industries. E-toxic
components in computers could be summarized as circuit boards containing heavy metals like lead
& cadmium; batteries containing cadmium; cathode ray tubes with lead oxide & barium;
brominated flameretardants used on printed circuit boards, cables and plastic casing; poly vinyl
chloride (PVC) coated copper cables and plastic computer casings that release highly toxic dioxins
& furans when burnt to recover valuable metals; mercury switches; mercury in flat screens; poly
chlorinated biphenyl's (PCB's) present in older capacitors; transformers; etc. Basel Action Network
(BAN) estimates that the 500 million computers in the world contain 2.87 billion kgs of plastics,
716.7 million kgs of lead and 286,700 kgs of mercury. The average 14-inch monitor uses a tube

13. 5
that contains an estimated 2.5 to 4 kgs of lead. The lead can seep into the ground water from
landfills thereby contaminating it. If the tube is crushed and burned, it emits toxic fumes into the
air.
Also discarded equipment such as desktop PCs is mainly dismantled to recover steel, aluminum, and
copper. Waste includes toxic materials like cadmium from printer inks and toners; CPU contains
heavy metals cadmium, lead and mercury; PCB contains heavy metal antimony, silver, chromium,
zinc, lead, tin and copper. LCD panels and glass waste from CRTs and other activated glasses,
including plastic associated with the e-wastes are classified as Hazardous waste under Annex II of
the Basel Convention. Majority of the recycling actives take place on unfortified ground where
harmful substances released during dismantling are directly discharged to the soil. Burning copper
cables (released dioxin) and wires, monitors and TV casing all accumulate ash and partially burned
material at the burning sites. These activities generate toxic gas, and leachate which contribute to
acute chemical hazard and long-term contamination at the burning sites, as well as emitting ozone
depleting substances and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, and has an adverse impact on
humans A sampling campaign carried out by the Greenpeace Research Laboratories in Accra, Ghana
at an informal e-waste recycling site (Agbogbloshie and Korforidua) revealed that copper, lead, tin
and zinc concentrations in soil and ash samples are over one hundred time higher than typical back
ground levels.
1.5 Effects on environment and human health
Disposal of e-wastes is a particular problem faced in many regions across the globe. Computer
wastes that are landfilled produces contaminated leachates which eventually pollute the
groundwater. Acids and sludge obtained from melting computer chips, if disposed on the ground
causes acidification of soil. For example, Guiyu, Hong Kong a thriving area of illegal e-waste
recycling is facing acute water shortages due to the contamination of water resources.
This is due to disposal of recycling wastes such as acids, sludges etc. in rivers. Now water is being
transported from faraway towns to cater to the demands of the population. Incineration of e-wastes
can emit toxic fumes and gases, thereby polluting the surrounding air. Improperly monitored
landfills can cause environmental hazards. Mercury will leach when certain electronic devices,
such as circuit breakers are destroyed. The same is true for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from
condensers. When brominated flame retardant plastic or cadmium containing plastics are land
filled, both polybrominated dlphenyl ethers (PBDE) and cadmium may leach into the soil and

14. 6
groundwater. It has been found that significant amounts of lead ion are dissolved from broken lead
containing glass, such as the cone glass of cathode ray tubes, gets mixed with acid waters and are a
common occurrence in landfills.
Not only does the leaching of mercury poses specific problems, the vaporization of metallic
mercury and dimethylene mercury, both part of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
(WEEE) is also of concern. In addition, uncontrolled fires may arise at landfills and this could be a
frequent occurrence in many countries. When exposed to fire, metals and other chemical
substances, such as the extremely toxic dioxins and furans (TCDD tetrachloro dibenzo-dioxin,
PCDDs-polychlorinated dibenzodioxins. PBDDs-polybrominated dibenzo-dioxin and PCDFspoly
chlorinated dibenzo furans) from halogenated flame retardant products and PCB containing
condensers can be emitted. The most dangerous form of burning e-waste is the open-air burning of
plastics in order to recover copper and other metals. The toxic fall-out from open air burning
affects both the local environment and broader global air currents, depositing highly toxic by-
products in many places throughout the world.
Table I summarizes the health effects of certain constituents in e-wastes. If these electronic items
are discarded with other household garbage, the toxics pose a threat to both health and vital
components of the ecosystem. In view of the ill-effects of hazardous wastes to both environment
and health, several countries exhorted the need for a global agreement to address the problems and
challenges posed by hazardous waste. Also, in the late 1980s, a tightening of environmental
regulations in industrialized countries led to a dramatic rise in the cost of hazardous waste disposal.
Searching for cheaper ways to get rid of the wastes, "toxic traders" began shipping hazardous
waste to developing countries. International outrage following these irresponsible activities led to
the drafting and adoption of strategic plans and regulations at the Basel Convention. The
Convention secretariat, in Geneva, Switzerland, facilitates and implementation of the Convention
and related agreements. It also provides assistance and guidelines on legal and technical issues,
gathers statistical data, and conducts training on the proper management of hazardous waste.
1.6 BASEL CONVENTION
The fundamental aims of the Basel Convention are the control and reduction of Transboundary
movements of hazardous and other wastes including the prevention and minimization of their
generation, the environmentally sound management of such wastes and the active promotion of the
transfer and use of technologies.

15. 7
A Draft Strategic Plan has been proposed for the implementation of the Basel Convention. The
Draft Strategic Plan takes into account existing regional plans, programmes or strategies, the
decisions of the Conference of the Parties and its subsidiary bodies, ongoing project activities and
process of international environmental governance and sustainable development. The Draft
requires action at all levels of society: training, information, communication, methodological tools,
capacity building with financial support, transfer of know-how, knowledge and sound, proven
cleaner technologies and processes to assist in the concrete implementation of the Basel
Declaration. It also calls for the effective involvement and coordination by all concerned
stakeholders as essential for achieving the aims of the Basel Declaration within the approach of
common but differentiated responsibility.
Table I: Effects of E-Waste constituent on health
Source of e-wastes Constituent Health effects
Solder in printed
circuit boards, glass
panels and gaskets
in computer
monitors
Lead (PB)  Damage to central and peripheral nervous systems,
blood systems and kidney damage.
 Affects brain development of children.
Chip resistors and
semiconductors
Cadmium
(CD)
 Toxic irreversible effects on human health.
 Accumulates in kidney and liver.
 Causes neural damage.
 Teratogenic.
Relays and switches,
printed circuit
boards
Mercury (Hg)  Chronic damage to the brain.
 Respiratory and skin disorders due to
bioaccumulation in fishes.
Corrosion protection Hexavalent  Asthmatic bronchitis.

16. 8
of untreated and
galvanized steel
plates, decorator or
hardner for steel
housings
chromium (Cr)
VI
 DNA damage.
Cabling and
computer housing
Plastics
including PVC
Burning produces dioxin. It causes
 Reproductive and developmental problems;
 Immune system damage;
 Interfere with regulatory hormones
Plastic housing of
electronic
equipments and
circuit boards.
Brominated
flame
retardants
(BFR)
 Disrupts endocrine system functions
Front panel of CRTs Barium (Ba) Short term exposure causes:
 Muscle weakness;
 Damage to heart, liver and spleen
Motherboard Beryllium (Be)  Carcinogenic (lung cancer)
 Inhalation of fumes and dust. Causes chronic
beryllium disease or beryllicosis.
 Skin diseases such as warts.

17. 9
Table 2: Other Industries Producing Waste Origin:
Industries Producing Waste Origin of Major Wastes Major Characteristics
Textiles Cooking of fabrics’ de-sizing of
fabric
Highly alkaline, colored, high
BOD, high suspended solids.
Agriculture Variable origin depending upon
exact source; agriculture chemical,
irrigation returns flows, crop
residual and liquid and soil animal
waste; pesticides
Highly organic and BOD;
detergent cleaning solution, from
pesticide; High organic matter,
benzenering structure, toxic to
bacteria’s and fish
Pulp and Paper Cooking, refining, washing or
fibers’ screening of paper pulp
High and low pH, colour, high
suspended solid, colloidal and
dissolved solids, inorganic fillers
Oil fields and Refineries Drilling muds, salt, oil and some
natural gas, acid sludge and
miscellaneous oil from refining.
High suspended solid, mainly
sand, some clay and coal. High
dissolved salt from field, high
BOD, odour, phenol and sulphur
compounds from refinery
Glass Polish and cleaning of glass Colour, alkaline non-settle able
suspended solids
E-Waste Open burning, stripping of copper,
leaching, leakage
Mercury, heavy metal, high pH
Mining and Minerals Washing the ore, refining the ore
and collapse pits.
Sand, soil, metal and acid

18. 10
Chart 1
1.7 E-WASTE GENERATION AND RECYCLING DATA IN THE U.S.
Source U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
More e-waste ends up in our landfills and incinerators than is being recycled, although recycling
numbers continue to rise. Unfortunately, we don’t have a lot of solid data on e-waste recycling in
the U.S.
The primary data comes from an annual estimate by the EPA, whose most recent data (as of
summer 2015) is for 2013. This shows that we generated 3,140,000 tons of e-waste, in 2013 and
recycled 40%, up from 30% in 2012. We doubt that recycling rates actually increased this much in
one year. Even the EPA seems to doubt it, stating,
“It is unclear whether the large increase in the electronics recycling rate from 2012 to 2013 is due
to an actual increase in recycling or the result of improved and expanded data.” We are also
suspicious of data showing that the volume of e-waste being generated is decreasing. Certainly the
weight of what we are buying is decreasing, as many products get thinner and lighter. But with the
huge increase in volumes of products we are buying and retiring, we’d be surprised if these
numbers (of e-waste generated, meaning e-waste ready to be trashed or recycled) are going down
already. But we don’t doubt that e-waste recycling volumes are increasing, primarily as the result

19. 11
of many state laws requiring e-waste recycling, as well as some of the manufacturers’ voluntary
programs.
And while recycling is increasing, according to the EPA, currently about 60% of discarded
electronics end up in the trash. While many states are passing laws to prevent e-waste from going
into their landfills and incinerators, it’s still legal to trash electronics in many states. This is
problematic because the hazardous chemicals in them could leach out of landfills into groundwater
and streams. Burning the plastics in electronics can emit dioxin. Out of 3.14 tons of e-waste
generated in the U.S. in 2013, 1.87 million tons went into landfills and incinerators (60%) and only
1.27 million tons (40%) was recovered for recycling. However, a significant amount of that 40%
was exported.
1.8 MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTES
It is estimated that 75% of electronic items are stored due to uncertainty of how to manage it.
These electronic junks lie unattended in houses, offices, warehouses etc. and normally mixed with
household wastes, which are finally disposed off at landfills. This necessitates implementable
management measures.
In industries management of e-waste should begin at the point of generation. This can be done by
waste minimization techniques and by sustainable product design. Waste minimization in
industries involves adopting:
 Inventory management,
 Production-process modification,
 Volume reduction,
 Recovery and reuse.
Inventory management
Proper control over the materials used in the manufacturing process is an important way to reduce
waste generation. By reducing both the quantity of hazardous materials used in the process and the
amount of excess raw materials in stock, the quantity of waste generated can be reduced. This can
be done in two ways i.e. establishing material-purchase review and control procedures and
inventory tracking system.

20. 12
Developing review procedures for all material purchased is the first step in establishing an
inventory management program. Procedures should require that all materials be approved prior to
purchase. In the approval process all production materials are evaluated to examine if they contain
hazardous constituents and whether alternative non-hazardous materials are available.
Another inventory management procedure for waste reduction is to ensure that only the needed
quantity of a material is ordered. This will require the establishment of a strict inventory tracking
system. Purchase procedures must be implemented which ensure that materials are ordered only on
an as-needed basis and that only the amount needed for a specific period of time is ordered.
Production-process modification
Changes can be made in the production process, which will reduce waste generation. This
reduction can be accomplished by changing the materials used to make the product or by the more
efficient use of input materials in the production process or both. Potential waste minimization
techniques can be broken down into three categories:
I) improved operating and maintenance procedures,
ii) Material change and
iii) Process-equipment modification.
Improvements in the operation and maintenance of process equipment can result in significant
waste reduction. This can be accomplished by reviewing current operational procedures or lack of
procedures and examination of the production process for ways to improve its efficiency.
Instituting standard operation procedures can optimise the use of raw materials in the production
process and reduce the potential for materials to be lost through leaks and spills. A strict
maintenance program, which stresses corrective maintenance, can reduce waste generation caused
by equipment failure. An employee-training program is a key element of any waste reduction
program. Training should include correct operating and handling procedures, proper equipment
use, recommended maintenance and inspection schedules, correct process control specifications
and proper management of waste materials.
Hazardous materials used in either a product formulation or a production process may be replaced
with a less hazardous or non-hazardous material. This is a very widely used technique and is
applicable to most manufacturing processes. Implementation of this waste reduction technique may
require only some minor process adjustments or it may require extensive new process equipment.

21. 13
For example, a circuit board manufacturer can replace solvent-based product with water-based flux
and simultaneously replace solvent vapor degreaser with detergent parts washer.
Installing more efficient process equipment or modifying existing equipment to take advantage of
better production techniques can significantly reduce waste generation. New or updated equipment
can use process materials more efficiently producing less waste. Additionally such efficiency
reduces the number of rejected or off-specification products, thereby reducing the amount of
material which has to be reworked or disposed of. Modifying existing process equipment can be a
very cost-effective method of reducing waste generation. In many cases the modification can just
be relatively simple changes in the way the materials are handled within the process to ensure that
they are not wasted. For example, in many electronic manufacturing operations, which involve
coating a product, such as electroplating or painting, chemicals are used to strip off coating from
rejected products so that they can be recoated. These chemicals, which can include acids, caustics,
cyanides etc are often a hazardous waste and must be properly managed. By reducing the number
of parts that have to be reworked, the quantity of waste can be significantly reduced.
Volume reduction
Volume reduction includes those techniques that remove the hazardous portion of a waste from a
non-hazardous portion. These techniques are usually to reduce the volume, and thus the cost of
disposing of a waste material. The techniques that can be used to reduce waste-stream volume can
be divided into 2 general categories: source segregation and waste concentration. Segregation of
wastes is in many cases a simple and economical technique for waste reduction. Wastes containing
different types of metals can be treated separately so that the metal value in the sludge can be
recovered. Concentration of a waste stream may increase the likelihood that the material can be
recycled or reused. Methods include gravity and vacuum filtration, ultra filtration, reverse osmosis,
freeze vaporization etc.
For example, an electronic component manufacturer can use compaction equipments to reduce
volume of waste cathode ray-tube.
Recovery and reuse
This technique could eliminate waste disposal costs, reduce raw material costs and provide income
from a salable waste. Waste can be recovered on-site, or at an off-site recovery facility, or through
inter industry exchange. A number of physical and chemical techniques are available to reclaim a
waste material such as reverse osmosis, electrolysis, condensation, electrolytic recovery, filtration,

22. 14
centrifugation etc. For example, a printed-circuit board manufacturer can use electrolytic recovery
to reclaim metals from copper and tin-lead plating bath.
However recycling of hazardous products has little environmental benefit if it simply moves the
hazards into secondary products that eventually have to be disposed of. Unless the goal is to
redesign the product to use nonhazardous materials, such recycling is a false solution.
Sustainable product design
Minimization of hazardous wastes should be at product design stage itself keeping in mind the
following factors:
Rethink the product design: Efforts should be made to design a product with fewer amounts of
hazardous materials. For example, the efforts to reduce material use are reflected in some new
computer designs that are flatter, lighter and more integrated. Other companies propose centralized
networks similar to the telephone system.
Use of renewable materials and energy: Bio-based plastics are plastics made with plant-based
chemicals or plant-produced polymers rather than from petrochemicals. Bio-based toners, glues
and inks are used more frequently. Solar computers also exist but they are currently very
expensive.
Use of non-renewable materials that are safer: Because many of the materials used are non-
renewable, designers could ensure the product is built for re-use, repair and/or upgradeability.
Some computer manufacturers such as Dell and Gateway lease out their products thereby ensuring
they get them back to further upgrade and lease out again.
1.9 HAZARDOUS AND ELECTRONIC WASTE CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT BILL,
2011:
AN ACT to provide for the control, management and disposal of hazardous waste and electronic
waste and for related purposes.
The Environmental Protection Agency- Ghana established under the Environmental
Protection Agency Act, 1994 (Act 490) is responsible for regulating the generation and
management of hazardous wastes and other waste.
Obligations of the Agency: The Agency shall

23. 15
(a) Monitor the management of hazardous wastes or other wastes in order to prevent any harmful
effects of these wastes on human health and the environment;
(b) Encourage the adoption of new environmentally sound technologies aimed at minimizing the
generation of hazardous wastes or other wastes;
(c) Ensure to the extent possible that adequate recovery and disposal facilities are located as close
as possible to the sites of generation of hazardous wastes or other wastes and if appropriate, that an
integrated network of the facilities is established;
(d) Endeavour to establish funding arrangements for assistance in emergency situations at both the
national and local levels; and
(e) Take, encourage and facilitate preventive measures.
Enforcement notice:
(1) Where the Minister, the Agency or any appropriate authority has reasonable grounds for
suspecting that any of the requirements of this Part have not been complied with, an enforcement
notice shall be served on the defaulting person.
(2) The notice shall
(a) State the specified requirement of this Part which has been contravened;
(b) Request the defaulting person to comply with the necessary requirements and provide evidence
to the Minister / Agency or the appropriate authority that the requirements of this Part have been
complied within thirty days of receipt of the notice.
(3) A person who fails to comply with an enforcement notice shall pay an administrative penalty of
not more than two thousand five hundred penalty units to the Agency.
Unfortunately, this bill is still pending at parliament (draft) for years waiting to be enacted or
passed and made a law.

24. 16
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
The literature review dealt with the existing theories and definitions of hazardous waste as well as
various perspective of waste which are hazardous. It further discusses the types of hazardous
waste, characteristics of hazardous waste and the impact of hazardous waste on human and
environment. It also looks at the various challenges in dealing (treatment) of hazardous waste in
Ghana.
2.1 What is Waste?
Waste according to the Basel convention: Wastes are substances or objects which are disposed or
are intended to be disposed or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national laws.
The United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD): Wastes are materials that are not prime products
(that is products produced for the market) for which the generator has no further use in terms of
his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and of which he/she wants to
dispose. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw
materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, and other human
activities. Residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded.
2.3 Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste is a waste with properties that make it potentially dangerous or harmful to human
health or the environment. The universe of hazardous wastes is large and diverse. Hazardous
wastes can be liquids, solids, or contained gases. They can be the by-products of manufacturing
processes, discarded used materials, or discarded unused commercial products, such as cleaning
fluids (solvents) or pesticides. In regulatory terms, a hazardous waste is a waste that appears on one
of the four RCRA1 hazardous wastes lists (the F-list, K-list, P-list, or U-list) or that exhibits one of
the four characteristics of a hazardous waste - ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity.
However, materials can be hazardous wastes even if they are not specifically listed or don't exhibit
any characteristic of a hazardous waste. For example, "used oil," products which contain materials
on California's M-list, materials regulated pursuant to the mixture or derived-from rules, and
contaminated soil generated from a "clean up" can also be hazardous wastes.

25. 17
Types of Hazardous Waste in Ghana:
According to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Hazardous wastes are
incorporated into five lists. These five lists are organized into four categories:
• The F-list (non-specific source wastes): This list identifies wastes from many common
manufacturing and industrial processes, such as solvents that have been used for cleaning or
degreasing. Since the processes producing these wastes occur in many different industry sectors,
the F-listed wastes are known as wastes from non-specific sources. (Non-specific meaning they
don't come from one specific industry or one specific industrial or manufacturing process.) The F-
list appears in the hazardous waste regulations in 22CCR Section 66261.31.
• The K-list (source-specific wastes): This list includes certain wastes from specific industries,
such as petroleum refining or pesticide manufacturing. Also, certain sludges and wastewaters from
treatment and production processes in these specific industries are examples of source-specific
wastes. The K-list appears in the hazardous waste regulations in 22CCR Section 66261.32.
The P-list and the U-list (discarded commercial chemical products): These lists include
specific commercial chemical products that have not been used, but that will be (or have been)
discarded. Industrial chemicals, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals are example of commercial
chemical products that appear on these lists and become hazardous waste when discarded. The P-
and U-lists appear in the hazardous waste regulations in 22CCR Subsections 66261.33(e) and (f).
• M-listed Wastes (discarded mercury-containing products): This list includes certain wastes
known to contain mercury, such as fluorescent lamps, mercury switches and the products that
house these switches, and mercury-containing novelties.
2.4 Characteristic Hazardous Wastes:
Wastes may be hazardous wastes if they exhibit any of the four characteristics of a hazardous waste
(ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity) as defined in Article 3 of Chapter 11 of the hazardous
waste regulations (Sections 66261.21 to 66261.24).
These four characteristics are:
Ignitability – Ignitable wastes can create fires under certain conditions, undergo spontaneous
combustion, or have a flash point less than 60°C (140°F). Examples include waste oil and used
solvents. The characteristic of ignitability is defined in section 66261.21 of the hazardous waste

26. 18
regulations. Test methods that may be used to determine if a waste exhibits the characteristic of
ignitability include the Pensky-Martens Closed-Cup Method for Determining Ignitability, the Seta
flash Closed-Cup Method for Determining Ignitability, and the Ignitability of Solids.
Corrosivity – Corrosive wastes are materials, including solids, that are acids or bases, or that
produce acidic or alkaline solutions. Aqueous wastes with a pH less than or equal to 2.0 or greater
than or equal to 12.5 are corrosive. A liquid waste may also be corrosive if it is able to corrode
metal containers, such as storage tanks, drums, and barrels. Spent battery acid is an example. The
characteristic of corrosivity is defined in section 66261.22 of the hazardous waste regulations. Test
methods that may be used to determine if a waste exhibits the characteristic of corrosivity are pH
Electronic Measurement and Corrosivity towards Steel.
Reactivity – Reactive wastes are unstable under normal conditions. They can cause explosions or
release toxic fumes, gases, or vapors when heated, compressed, or mixed with water. Examples
include lithium-sulfur batteries and unused explosives. The characteristic of reactivity is defined in
section 66261.23 of the hazardous waste regulations. There are currently no test methods available
for reactivity. Instead wastes are evaluated for reactivity using the narrative criteria set forth in the
hazardous waste regulations.
Toxicity – Toxic wastes are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed (e.g., wastes containing
mercury, lead, DDT, PCBs, etc.). When toxic wastes are disposed, the toxic constituents may leach
from the waste and pollute ground water. The characteristic of toxicity is defined in section
66261.24 of the hazardous waste regulations. It contains eight subsections, as described below. A
waste is a toxic hazardous waste if it is identified as being toxic by any one (or more) of the eight
subsections of this characteristic.
1. TCLP: Toxic as defined through application of a laboratory test procedure called the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP - U.S. EPA Test Method 1311). The TCLP
identifies wastes (as hazardous) that may leach hazardous concentrations of toxic substances
into the environment. The result of the TCLP test is compared to the Regulatory Level (RL) in
the table in subsection 66261.24(a) (1) of the hazardous waste regulations. This criterion does
not apply to wastes that are excluded from regulation under the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act.

27. 19
2. Totals and WET: Toxic as defined through application of laboratory test procedures called the
"total digestion" and the "Waste Extraction Test" (commonly called the "WET"). The results of
each of these laboratory tests are compared to their respective regulatory limits, the Total
Threshold Limit Concentrations (TTLCs) and the Soluble Threshold Limit Concentrations
(STLCs), which appear in subsection 66261.24(a) (2) of the hazardous waste regulations.
3. Acute Oral Toxicity: Toxic because the waste either is an acutely toxic substance or contains
an acutely toxic substance, if ingested. As stated in subsection 66261.24(a) (3), a waste is
identified as being toxic if it has an acute oral LD50 less than 2,500 mg/kg. A calculated oral LD50
may be used.
4. Acute Dermal Toxicity: Toxic because the waste either is an acutely toxic substance or
contains an acutely toxic substance, if dermal exposure occurs. As stated in subsection
66261.24(a)(4), a waste is identified as being toxic if it has an dermal LC50 less than 4,300 mg/kg.
A calculated dermal LD50 may be used.
5. Acute Inhalation Toxicity: Toxic because the waste either is an acutely toxic substance or
contains an acutely toxic substance, if inhaled. As stated in subsection 66261.24(a)(5), a waste is
identified as being toxic if it has an dermal LC50 less than 10,000 mg/kg. U.S. EPA Test Method,
SW-846 Methods: 3810, Headspace (formerly Method 5020) may be used to "test out" (for volatile
organic substances).
6. Acute Aquatic Toxicity: Toxic because the waste is toxic to fish. A waste is aquatically toxic if
it produces an LC50 less than 500 mg/L when tested using the "Static Acute Bioassay Procedures
for Hazardous Waste Samples”. This test procedure is available at:
http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/HazardousWaste/upload/HWMP_bioassay_report.pdf
7. Carcinogenicity: Toxic because it contains one or more carcinogenic substances. As stated in
subsection 66261.24(a)(7), a waste is identified as being toxic if it contains any of the specified
carcinogens at a concentration of greater than or equal to 0.001 percent by weight.
8. Experience or Testing: Pursuant to subsection 66262.24(a) (8), a waste may be toxic (and
therefore, a hazardous waste) even if it is not identified as toxic by any of the seven criteria above.
At the present time, only wastes containing ethylene glycol (e.g., spent antifreeze solutions) have
been identified as toxic by this subsection

28. 20
2.5 Hazardous Waste in the Oil and Gas Section in Ghana
 Drilling Fluids and Drilled Cuttings:
Drill cuttings are created when a well is drilled in rock to reach oil and gas trapped below. These
cuttings can vary in size and texture, from fine silt to gravel. The cuttings are carried back to the
surface by the drilling mud which is all hazardous. The primary functions of drilling fluids used in
oil and gas field drilling operations include removal of drilled cuttings (rock chippings) from the
wellbore and control of formation pressures. Other important functions include sealing permeable
formations, maintaining wellbore stability, cooling and lubricating the drill bit, and transmitting
hydraulic energy to the drilling tools and bit. Drilled cuttings removed from the wellbore and spent
drilling fluids are typically the largest waste streams generated during oil and gas drilling activities.
Drilling Fluid Composition:
Drilling fluid consists of a continuous liquid phase, to which various chemicals and solids have
been added to modify the operational properties of the resulting mix. Key operational properties
include density, viscosity, fluid loss, ion-exchange parameters, reactivity and salinity.
There are two primary types of drilling fluids: Waste Based Fluids (WBFs) and Non-Aqueous
drilling fluids (NADFs). Waste Based Fluids (WBFs) consist of water mixed with bentonite clay
and barium sulphate (barite) to control mud density and thus, hydrostatic head. Other substances
are added to gain the desired drilling properties. These additives include thinners (e.g.
lignosulphonate, or anionic polymers), filtration control agents (polymers such as carboxymethyl
cellulose or starch) and lubrication agents (e.g. polyglycols) and numerous other compounds for
specific functions. WBF composition depends on the density of the fluid. NADFs are emulsions
where the continuous phase is the Non-Aqueous Based Fluid (NABF) with water and chemicals as
the internal phase. The NADFs comprise all non-water and non-water dispersible base fluids.
Similar to WBFs, additives are used to control the properties of NADFs. Emulsifiers are used in
NADFs to stabilise the water –in-oil emulsions. As with WBFs, barite is used to provide sufficient
density. Viscosity is controlled by adjusting the ration of base fluid to water and by the use of clay
materials. The base fluid provides sufficient lubricity to the fluid, eliminating the need for
lubricating agents. NADF composition depends on fluid density.

29. 21
Produced Sand
Produced sand originating from the reservoir is separated from the formation fluids during
hydrocarbon processing. The produced sand can be contaminated with hydrocarbons, but the oil
content can vary substantially depending on location, depth, and reservoir characteristics. Well
completion should aim to reduce the production of sand at source using effective downhole sand
control measures.
Whenever practical, produced sand removed from process equipment should be transported to
shore for treatment and disposal, or routed to an offshore injection disposal well if available.
Discharge to sea is not considered to be current good practice. If discharge to sea is the only
demonstrable feasible option then the discharged should meet a specific guideline set by Ghana
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Completion and Well Work-Over Fluids
Completion and Well work-over fluids (including intervention fluids and service fluids) can
typically include weighted brines or acids, methanol and glycols, and many other chemical
systems. These fluids are used to clean the wellbore and stimulate the flow of hydrocarbons, or
simply used to maintain downhole pressure. Once used these fluids may contain contaminants
including solid material, oil and chemical additives which all considered as hazardous.
Disposal options such as indicated below should be used:
 Collection of the fluids if handled in closed systems and shipping to shore to the original
vendors for recycling;
 Injection in an available injection disposal well, where available;
 Shipping to shore for treatment and disposal.
If discharge to sea is the only demonstrated feasible option:
 Chemical systems should be selected in terms of their concentration, toxicity,
bioavailability and bioaccumulation potential;
 Considerations should be given to routing these fluids to the produced water stream for
treatment and disposal, if available;
 Spent acids should be neutralized before treatment and disposal;

30. 22
 The fluids should meet the discharge levels guideline set by Ghana Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA).
Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials
Depending on the field reservoir characteristics, naturally occuring radioactive material (NORM)
may precipitate as scale or sludges in process piping and production vessels. Where NORM is
present, a NORM management program should be developed so that appropriate handling
procedures are followed. If removal of NORM is required for occupational health reasons, disposal
options may include: canister disposal during well abandonment; injection into the annular space
of a well; shipping to shore for disposal to landfill in sealed containers; and depending on the type
of NORM and when there is no other option available, discharge to sea with the facility drainage.
Sludge, scale, or NORM-impacted equipment should be treated, processed, or isolated so that
potential future human exposures to the treated waste would be within internationally acceptance
risk-based limits. Industrial best practices should be used for disposal. If waste is sent to an
external onshore facility for disposal, the facility must be licensed to receive such waste.
2.6 Impact of hazardous waste on human and environment.
Coming into contact with a substance is called an exposure. The effects of exposure depend on:
How the substance is used and disposed of
 Who is exposed to it
 The concentration, or dose, of exposure
 How someone is exposed
 How long or how often someone is exposed.
Humans, plants, and animals can be exposed to hazardous substances through inhalation, ingestion,
or dermal exposure.
 Inhalation - we can breathe vapors from hazardous liquids or even from contaminated
water while taking a shower.
 Ingestion - we can eat fish, fruits and vegetables, or meat that has been contaminated
through exposure to hazardous substances. Also, small children often eat soil or household
materials that may be contaminated, such as paint chips containing lead. Probably the most
common type of exposure is drinking contaminated water.

31. 23
 Dermal exposure - a substance can come into direct contact with and be absorbed by our
skin.
Exposures can be either acute or chronic. An acute exposure is a single exposure to a hazardous
substance for a short time. Health symptoms may appear immediately after exposure; for example,
the death of a fly when covered with bug spray or a burn on your arm when exposed to a strong
acid such as from a leaking battery.
Chronic exposure occurs over a much longer period of time, usually with repeated exposures in
smaller amounts. For example, people who lived near Love Canal, a leaking hazardous waste
dump, did not notice the health effects of their chronic exposure for several years. Chronic health
effects are typically illnesses or injuries that take a long time to develop, such as cancer, liver
failure, or slowed growth and development.
One reason chronic exposure to even tiny amounts of hazardous substances can lead to harm is
bioaccumulation. Some substances are absorbed and stay in our bodies rather than being excreted.
They accumulate and cause harm over time.
2.7 The Challenges facing the Hazardous Waste Management.
Although Ghana is in gradual evolution towards “modern” standards of waste management,
however with development and lack on infrastructure, regulations and majority of the population
still living in poverty, hazardous waste management remain a major challenge. Collection of waste
are limited to paying customers within the urban cities while lack of funding, knowledge and weak
check and control instrumentation adding on uneducated population all of which contribute to
difficulties of managing Hazardous Waste Management in Ghana. As a result of poor waste
management, the risk of infectious diseases in Ghana is very high. Waterborne disease includes
bacterial and protozoa diarrhea, hepatitis A and typhoid fever. Wide spread of Malaria, water
related diseases include schistosomiasis, respiratory diseases and meningococcal meningitis been
reported. While the major urban centers are well served with medical service, rural areas are often
without modern facilities of health care. Patients in these areas rely on traditional medicine or
travel great distance for care.

32. 24
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter involves the methodology in the study. It deals with the type of research design, target
population, sampling and data collection procedure.
3.1 Research Design
Social science research was applied in this study which involves how to analyze data, come out
with findings and conclusion based on the results. This design is about getting all those involved in
an activity to participate fully in order to improve a situation.
Social research is research conducted by social scientists following a systematic plan. Social
research methods can be classified along a quantitative/qualitative dimension.
While methods may be classified as quantitative or qualitative, most methods contain elements of
both. For example, qualitative data analysis often involves a fairly structured approach to coding
the raw data into systematic information, and quantifying intercoder reliability. Thus, there is often
a more complex relationship between "qualitative" and "quantitative" approaches than would be
suggested by drawing a simple distinction between them.
Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyses a vast breadth of social
phenomena: from census survey data derived from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis
of a single agent's social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets,
to the investigation of ancient historical documents. Methods rooted in classical sociology and
statistics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as political science, media
studies, program evaluation and market research.
3.2 The Study Area
The study was conducted in the Takoradi Metropolitan area in the Western region of Ghana.
Population is the total number of individuals being considered for a study. The target population
for this study is Zoil Ghana Limited and Zeal Environment Technology Limited officials.

33. 25
3.3 Sources of Data
To support the survey, primary data was obtained mainly from the Waste Company of the Zoil
Services Limited (Hazardous Waste Management Company) as well as individuals in the Shama
district of the Western Region. Secondary data was also collected and mostly included books,
published articles both on the internet and in journals and government publications. The socio-
economic survey utilized a stratified sampling approach.
Two types of households were identified.
The stratified sampling involved grouping households into three main categories of affluence.
Furthermore, two main social gathering points were identified for questionnaire administration in
conjunction with the house-to-house mode of administration of questionnaires. These locations
notwithstanding, several of the questionnaires were administered from door-to door in most parts
of the communities.
3.4 Instruments (Modes of Data Collection)
Primary Data Collection
Primary data for the study was collected through field study, questionnaire survey and face-to-face
interviews. Questionnaire was developed to take into account all the important variables of public
willingness to pay for better hazardous waste collection. Questionnaire was discussed with experts
and was pre-tested before finalizing it. By using systematic random sampling, 80 questionnaires
were administered from door to door in some areas and more conveniently at two central gathering
points; a church and a Senior High School. The questionnaire was put into two categories: part one
was aimed at collecting demographic data (age, sex, academic level, marital, and employment
status), and the second part looked at the important variables of the willingness of the public to pay
for a better hazardous waste collection.
Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data regarding the level of collection, sources of operational funds, status of logistics
and the problems confronting their operations were collected from the Waste management
authorities: (Zoil Services Limited, Zeal Environmental Technology and Zoomlion Ghana
Limited). Data collection from the Waste Management Department (WMD) of the various
authorities was done through personal interviews and few extracts from their records. The data
collected here was on waste stream information including waste type and composition, waste
collection, supposed volume generated versus volume collected. The data also include the existing
methods of waste disposal. Both primary and secondary data information were also collected from

34. 26
Tullow Oil Plu on their waste generation during their upstream and downstream operation in the
oil and gas sector.
Contingent Valuation Method (CVM)
In order to achieve the objectives of the study, CVM was used in the data collection. It shows the
valuation that an individual attaches to a service. The approach involves asking people questions,
as opposed to observing their actual behavior.
Convenience samples
This method though regarded as a non-random sampling method was employed in the selected
schools where questionnaires were administered. An equal number of students, living in one of the
communities under study from different classes were selected at random to respond to the
questionnaires on behalf of their parents or send it to their parents for a response. The idea behind
this method of sampling is to get respondents who are easier to select or who are most likely to
respond.
One advantage with this method for this study was to meet a large group of respondents in a short
period of time while saving funds and expending little energy.
The diversity of parents of these students therefore makes the convenience sampling random to a
large extent.
3.5 Data Processing and Analysis
Data collected from the questionnaire were examined to check completeness, accuracy and
consistency of responses. Statistical analysis was performed using statistical software, SPSS
version 16 analysis. Statistical tables and charts were constructed for easier interpretation and
discussion.

35. 27
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.0 WHY HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATED BY TULLOW OIL PLC. IS A PROBLEM
IN GHANA?
What are the dangers of hazardous waste management?
Proper management and control can greatly reduce the dangers of hazardous waste. There are
many rules for managing hazardous waste and preventing releases into the environment. Even so, a
lot can go wrong when we try to contain hazardous waste. Even the most technologically advanced
landfills we build will leak someday. Tanks used for storing petroleum products and other
chemicals can leak and catch fire; underground storage tanks weaken over time and leak their
hazardous contents. Transportation accidents, such as train crashes and overturned trucks, can
occur while transporting hazardous substances. There are also cases of intentional and illegal
dumping of hazardous waste in sewer systems, abandoned warehouses, or ditches in remote areas
to avoid the costs and rules of safe disposal.
Chart 2
A DIAGRAME SHOWING THE TOTAL HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATED BY TULLOW
OIL PLC FOR TWO YERARS PERIOD
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
YEARS 2012 2013 TOTAL
TOTAL HAZAROUS WASTE
GENERATED WITHIN TWO
YEARS PERIOD.
HAZARDOUS LIQUID
WASTE
HAZARDOUS SOLID
WASTE
TOTAL HAZARDOUS
WASTE

36. 28
Table 3
TOTAL HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATED WITHIN TWO YEARS PERIOD.
YEARS WASTE TYPE QUANTIY
2012 LIQUID 450000
SOLID 150000
2013 LIQUID 40000
SOLID 10000
TOTAL 650000
Chart 3
DIAGRAME SHOWING TOTAL AMOUNT PAID BY TULLOW OIL PLC FOR HAZARDOUS
WATES TREATMENT.
Table 4
TOTAL AMOUNT PAID FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT.
YEARS WASTE TYPE AMOUNT
2012 LIQUID 189000
SOLID 63000
2013 LIQUID 960000
SOLID 240000
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
YEARS 2012 2013 TOTAL
TOTAL HAZAROUS WASTE
GENERATED WITHIN TWO
YEARS PERIOD.
LIQUID
SOILD
Total

37. 29
TOTAL 1452000
4.1 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT
To identify the availability and capacity of specific treatment options currently available in Ghana,
in other countries within Africa or the wider international market and the best method been chosen;
1. Activated Carbon
2. Bioremediation
3. Phytoremediation
4. Incineration
5. Anaerobic Thermal Desorption Unit (ATDU)
4.2 ACTIVATED CARBON
Activated carbon is a carbonaceous skeleton with a large network of pores. It is these pores that
trap organic contaminants. Our activated carbon grades contain a broad range of pore sizes:
micropores, mesopores and macropores. Different activated carbons can vary significantly in their
distribution of pore size, depending on the activation method and the starting material peat, wood,
lignite coal, bituminous coal, coconut shells or olive pits. The unwanted impurities and
contaminants are trapped within the porous structure of the activated carbon by either physical
adsorption or chemisorption. In physical adsorption the impurities are held on the surface of the
carbon by weak Van der Waals forces whereas in chemisorption the forces are relatively strong
and occur at active sites on the surface. The efficiency of the carbon will therefore depend upon its
accessible surface area, and also upon the presence of active sites upon the surface at which
chemisorption may occur. The large internal surface area and pore size distribution can also be
used to impregnate catalysts. Herein the pore volume and surface area are used for a high
accessibility of the catalyst.
4.3 BIOREMEDIATION
Bioremediation is a waste management technique that involves the use of organisms to remove or
neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site. According to the EPA, bioremediation is a
“treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to break down hazardous substances into less
toxic or non toxic substances”. Technologies can be generally classified as in situ or ex situ. In situ
bioremediation involves treating the contaminated material at the site, while ex situ involves the
removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.

38. 30
Biotreatment is a broader term, which refers to all biological treatment processes, including
bioremediation. Biotreatment can be used to detoxify process waste streams at the source - before
they contaminate the environment - rather than at the point of disposal. This approach involves
carefully selecting organisms, known as biocatalysts, which are enzymes that degrade specific
compounds such Drill Cuttings, Crude Oil Tank Bottoms, Hydraulic and Engine Oils, drilling mud,
oily water and define the conditions that accelerate the degradation process
Fig. 3
Fig. 4 Oily Mud

39. 31
4.4 PHYTOREMEDIATION
Phytoremediation is the direct use of living green plants for in situ, or in place, removal,
degradation, or containment of contaminants in soils, sludges, sediments, surface water and
groundwater. Phytoremediation is:
 A low cost, solar energy driven cleanup technique.
 Most useful at sites with shallow, low levels of contamination.
 Useful for treating a wide variety of environmental contaminants.
Effective with, or in some cases, in place of mechanical cleanup methods.
Fig. 5
4.5 INCINERATION
Waste destruction in a furnace by controlled burning at high temperatures. Incineration removes
water from hazardous sludge, reduces its mass and/or volume, and converts it to a non-burnable
ash that can be safely disposed of on land, in some waters, or in underground pits. However, it is a
highly contentious method because incomplete incineration can produce carbon monoxide gas,
gaseous dioxins, and/or other harmful substances.

40. 32
The Process of Incineration
In the process of incineration, incinerators reduce the waste by burning it after the incinerator is
initially fired up with gas or other combustible material. The process is then sustained by the waste
itself. Complete waste combustion requires a temperature of 850º C for at least two seconds but
most plants raise it to higher temperatures to reduce organic substances containing chlorine. Flue
gases are then sent to scrubbers which remove all dangerous chemicals from them. To reduce
dioxin in the chimneys where they are normally formed, cooling systems are introduced in the
chimneys. Chimneys are required to be at least 9 meters above existing structures.
Fig. 6
Waste to Energy (WTE) incinerating plants have a huge advantage that they can produce electricity
which in the long run can help to reduce costs. A 250 ton per day incinerator can produce 6.5
megawatts of electricity per day and this itself can save about $3 million per year. Some cold
countries also use the heat from incinerators for heating of offices and houses in locations near the
plant.
Gases and leachates that are produced in landfills by waste are totally eliminated and the waste that
is produced in the incineration is totally free of any environmental risk. In fact there are efforts to
convert even this waste to other

41. 33
Disadvantages of Incineration of Waste
The high cost of incineration plant has been a turnoff of for municipal authorities and is only now
being addressed with the introduction of WTE plants. The need for huge waste to incinerate has led
to abandonment of other plans for recycling and reuse of waste. Dioxins are produced in the
treatment and is a cancer forming chemical. These are produced in the smoke stack. The plants
require skilled personnel for operation and continuous maintenance.
Advantages of Incineration of Waste
Incineration is a practical method of disposal that saves a lot of money on transport of waste to
landfills and thus also the carbon footprint that such transport leaves behind. The sheer reduction in
the space required to dispose of the 10 percent of waste that it does produce relieves pressure on
land, which in urban areas can constitute a big saving. Landfills have never been a pretty site and
also give rise to a lot of pests and insects.
4.6 ANAEROBIC THERMAL DESORPTION UNIT (ATDU)
RLC Technologies, Inc.’s Anaerobic Thermal Desorption Unit (ATDU) is a non-incineration, non-
oxidizing technology designed to separate hydrocarbons from various matrices including oilfield
waste, soil, sludge, sand, filter-cake, tank and tanker bottoms, organic-based hazardous waste and
contaminated soil in a non-oxidizing atmosphere without destroying the hydrocarbons. This paper
briefly discusses the successful application of ATDU in treatment of different waste streams in
particular oily sludge, drill cuttings, organic-based hazardous waste processing and contaminated
soil remediation. Detailed process description along with major ATDU system components
description and function are discussed.
Background
Traditional disposal and storage methods for oily waste, drill cuttings and hazardous waste
materials in pits, landfills or ocean dumping are becoming less popular by governments influenced
by internal needs for better waste disposal practices and external pressure by various regional and
international regulatory agreements. Combination of environmental regulations attempting to
establish better standards of care in the oil producing countries of the world combined with
attractive oil prices provide a unique economically driven opportunity for recovery of the oil from
the waste material as a sellable product. The ATDU process has been used extensively for oil
separation and recovery throughout the world including countries in the Middle East, Southeast
Asia, North America, and the Caribbean.

42. 34
ATDU Technology Application
ATDU process has been in use for over a decade while processing oily sludge waste generated at
oil refineries and petrochemical plants, tank and tanker bottoms received at marine waste
processing facilities, drill cuttings from on- and off-shore operations, organic-based hazardous
waste (US EPA defined RCRA waste) and remediation of soils contaminated with a wide host of
chlorinated and non-chlorinated hydrocarbons. ATDU has had a successful track record in
processing oily matrices with elevated hydrocarbon content. Traditionally the most effective
technology for processing oily waste with elevated hydrocarbon was various forms of incineration
technologies. This process while effective in removing the hydrocarbons was not capable of
recovering any hydrocarbons for beneficial recycling. The hydrocarbons were typically burned
inside the system with some heat recovery. ATDU has been utilized at several refineries including
Exxon-Mobil, Conoco-Phillips and Hess in North America as an “on-site” remediation tool for
processing certain oily refinery waste; a RCRA classified hazardous waste in the US. By having
the waste processed on-site at the refinery the material does not have to be transported to an off-
site incineration facility. The ATDU’s effective hydrocarbon removal and recycling capabilities, its
ease of regulatory emission permitting process and its greater acceptance by the general public
have been key factors in its popularity among the refineries and the cleanup contractors in North
America. The ATDU process is subject to USEPA’s regulations under Subtitle X which is
substantially different and less stringent when compared to those applied to the incineration
technologies which have to comply with extensive (and expensive) Subtitle O emission guidelines.
RLCT’s ATDU system is currently the only system of this type currently permitted to process
RCRA hazardous waste in the United States for recovery of the hydrocarbons for recycling, an
alternative to traditional incineration systems that are substantially more expensive to build and
permit. This enables ATDU system owner operators to realize their return on their investment
more rapidly when compared to traditional expensive incineration systems.
The USEPA has also adopted this technology as a viable and proven soil remediation tool at well
over thirty Superfund sites throughout the country including a highly publicized Universal Oil
Product (UOP Superfund Site) located near the New York Giant’s football stadium where ATDU
was used to remove Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
(PAHs) from the contaminated soil. This technology has been used at substantially larger number
of privately funded cleanup projects in North America. This technology has also been used
internationally to clean up contaminated soil at some high profile sites in Sydney, Australia
(Homebush Bay), Hong Kong (Dioxin contaminated Cheoy Lee Shipyard was cleaned-up to

43. 35
become the site of Disney’s theme park) and is currently being considered as a possible technology
for the cleanup of dioxin contaminated soil at the former Union Carbide site in Bhopal, India. The
ATDU owes its success to several key factors when compared to traditional incineration
technology: 1) high levels of hydrocarbons in the ATDU do not create thermal loads and process
difficulties typically encountered in incineration and direct fired thermal processing technologies;
2) sufficiently high concentrations of oils in the waste can justify the recovery cost while
considering the beneficial resale value of the recovered product in combination with the ecological
protection; therefore, a value added process. And 3) since it is not considered an incineration
technology by the regulators and the grass root environmental organizations throughout the world;
it has become the treatment technology of choice for the cleanup of chlorinated (and non-
chlorinated) hydrocarbons contaminated sites worldwide.
ATDU Process Description
Within this paper, the Company’s ATDU equipment is described with the main focus being on the
oily waste (refinery streams, drill cuttings, tank and tanker bottoms) processing. When processing
the above streams, typical ATDU plant is composed of several major subsystems (or skids) that
work together in concert. These include (1) feed unit, (2) the indirectly heated rotary drum, (3)
treated solids cooling unit, (4) vapor recovery unit, (5) primary water treatment unit made up of oil
water separator, (6) and central process controls.

44. 36
Fig. 7
Feed Preparation & Metering, Conveying Unit
The main components of a typical feed system include single or dual-feed hoppers for waste
material storage. The hoppers are furnished with variable speed driven screw auger systems in the
bottom for discharge of difficult to convey material. This mechanism of discharge is also known as
the “live bottom” design. Each hopper is furnished with a walking platform around top for cleaning
and maintenance access to the screening grizzly over the feed hopper. The grizzly is used to screen
large particles from entering the hopper/ATDU. The feed hopper can be charged using a front-end
loader or crane operated clam-shell type bucket. The hopper can be furnished with cover to control
VOC emission between loadings. As material is discharged from the hopper it travels via single or
dual enclosed conveyors before reaching the inlet of the ATDU. En-route the material travels over
a belt scale where the feed rate to the ATDU is monitored and adjusted as necessary. The ATDU
feed rate is controlled by adjusting the speed of the rotation of the screw-auger system in the feed
hopper bottom while all other conveying components operate at constant speed. Material
preparation and pre-treatment might be necessary during certain projects to assure good material
conveying and thermal treatment. Oily waste material with elevated free liquid (oil and water)
level are recommended to undergo some type of physical liquid separation prior to thermal
treatment. Drilling mud with elevated liquid content may have to be pretreated to assure sufficient

45. 37
consistency prior to thermal treatment. Material pretreatment is one of the most important factors-
often time overlooked-in the successful thermal treatment operation.
Indirectly Heated Rotary Drum
The primary function of the indirectly heated rotary drum is to vaporize the hydrocarbon
contaminants and the moisture from the incoming waste material or solids. The indirect heated
drum is the heart of the system. It is fabricated with heat and corrosion resistant low nickel alloy
for design furnace service temperatures ranging in 800ºC – 1,200ºC. The rotary drum that is heated
from outside while inside a stationary furnace where several burners provide the necessary process
heat. As the drum shell is heated the energy is transferred to the contaminated feed material inside
the rotary drum through conduction. The material inside are also heated through radiation from the
rotary drum’s interior shell surface. The rotary drum shell material and the furnace burner capacity
are designed to elevated material temperature up to 500ºC-600ºC, although these higher operating
temperature ranges are rarely necessary for material processing under normal circumstance. By
having the burners located inside the furnace the contaminated materials inside the rotary drum do
not come in contact with the products of combustion from the burners. The drum’s material inlet
and discharge are controlled via two airlocks designed to minimize air (oxygen) leakage into the
drum. The inlet and discharge end of the rotary drum are equipped with custom designed seals to
prevent air leakage. The contaminated material travel time through the rotary drum is controlled by
the slope of the unit, number and location of the internal lifters and the rotational speed of the
rotary drum. Typically the drum slope and the position and number of lifters are fixed; the
rotational speed of the drum is the key feature that controls the retention time of the contaminated
material inside the rotary drum. The required retention time inside the rotary drum to achieve any
given cleanup goal is highly dependent on the free and bound moisture content of the waste
material, solid’s physical characteristics such as particle size distribution, type of organic and
inorganic compounds present in the waste stream and the vapor pressure of the hydrocarbons.
During the treatment process as the oily sludge or drill cuttings travel through the rotary drum the
hydrocarbons and water undergo evaporation (desorption) process while generating a very dry and
contaminant free solid stream. The processed solids that are very hot at this point are conveyed into
a pug mill where they are mixed with water for cooling before being discharged. The material
temperature is continuously monitored by thermocouples at the inlet and the discharge points of the
rotary drum. The shell temperature is monitored at several points along the length of the unit to
prevent overheating. The furnace stack gas discharge temperature is monitored very closely. A
combination of the stack gas exit temperature, material exit temperature from the ATDU and the

46. 38
shell temperature are typically used to achieve optimum fuel consumption rate during plant
operation. The atmosphere inside the rotary drum is under continuous negative pressure by the
plant’s induced draft (ID) fan. The desorbed vapors are transported from the rotary drum into the
system’s Vapor Recovery Unit (VRU). The ATDU is furnished with access doors for easy access
for inspection, cleaning and maintenance of the lifters inside the rotary drum.
Treated Solids Cooling and Steam Scrubbing
The hot treated solids discharged from the rotary drum are conveyed to a dualshaft pugmill for
cooling. Each shaft is equipped with mixing paddles. Inside the pugmill the hot incoming solids are
continuously mixed with water for cooling and dust control before being discharged from the pug
mill. As hot material comes in contact with cooling water steam is generated. The generated steam
is entrained with dust particles. A steam scrubber is placed on top of the pug mill where it
condenses the steam and scrubs the dust out and back into the pug mill chamber. The pug mill is
furnished with access doors for easy inspection, cleaning, maintenance and replacement/adjustment
of the paddle tips. The pug mill can be used effectively for optional mixing of the hydrocarbon-free
material at the point of exit with various additives such as lime or Portland cement to stabilize the
residual metals prior to disposal if required. These additives can be stored in an on-site storage silo
next to pug mill.
Vapor Recovery Unit
The main function of the Vapor Recovery Unit (VRU) is to condense and recover the desorbed
hydrocarbons, water vapor and the solid particles present in the gas stream exiting the rotary drum.
The VRU’s standard material of construction is temperature and corrosion resistant stainless steel
304 grade plate. The VRU includes several main components including dry dust collector, quench
section, venturi scrubber, separator, mist eliminator section, induced draft fan and condenser. The
dry dust collector (cyclone) removes the coarse particles from the gas stream to minimize solids
loading on the VRU and the water treatment unit of the system. Once the gases leave the cyclone
they enter the quench section where the gas stream is cooled by direct contact with finely atomized
water droplets via multiple nozzles. This water spray system also helps in knocking out additional
solids from the gas stream. As the gas temperature begins to cool down the majority of the
hydrocarbons begin to condense out by the time gases leave the quench section. The VRU is
equipped with an integrated variable throat venture scrubber for removal of the fine solid particles
from the gas stream entering the VRU. The dust laden gas stream and the process water collide,
dispersing the liquid into droplets that the particles impact and become entrapped within. These

47. 39
droplets containing the fine solid particles are removed from the gas stream in a horizontal
cyclonic separator downstream of the venturi. This venturi is designed with an adjustable throat to
maintain the desired pressure drop across the throat as the gas volume changes. This feature
assures that the same particulate removal efficiency is maintained as operating parameters change
in the system. The gaseous effluents exiting the cyclonic separator pass through two mist
eliminators to remove entrained water droplets before reaching the system ID fan. The mist
eliminators are chevron type and are placed in series. They are easily removed for regular
maintenance cleaning. The process ID fan is equipped with a variable speed controlled drive for
sufficient draft through the system while continuously pulling the vapors through and our of the
rotary drum, cyclone, separator and the venturi scrubber and then pushing these vapors through the
condenser, the flame arrestor and activated carbon bed. Once the gases reach the condenser
(indirect heat exchanger) their temperature is dropped to less than 10ºC to promote removal of the
residual hydrocarbon vapors (the lighter hydrocarbons) from the gas stream. The cooling media for
the heat exchanger is a mixture of water and glycol compound that is continuously cooled by a
Freon based chiller system for optimum operation and minimum space requirement. Once the
gases leave the condenser they travel through a flame arrester before being discharged into an
activated carbon bed for final polishing prior to atmospheric discharge. The design of this heat
exchanger allows for easy maintenance and scheduled clean-up. Several access doors are furnished
within the VRU body for ease of inspection, scheduled maintenance, repairs and the required
occasional cleanup to remove material buildup.
API Separator for Oil Water Sediment Separation
The condensates, residual fines/sediments and the water collected inside the VRU are treated in an
above ground API type primary oil water separator. Depending on the material being processed by
the ATDU the separator can produce water that has sediments and oil concentrations in the range
of approximately 50 – 200 mg/liter. The API separator is a gravity separation device that works on
the principle of Stokes Law which defines the rise velocity of an oil particle based on its density
and size. The oil droplets float to the top and the sediments settle in the bottom of the separator
tank. The recovered oil is collected using a stationary skimmer. The collected oil is continuously
pumped into an above ground storage tank. The oil can undergo filtration or centrifuge to remove
sediments and moisture further before it is used as fuel. It can be reused for drill mud blending or
put back through refining process without major pretreatment. The recovered sediments/sludge is
pumped from the separator using pneumatic pump and is recycled back into the ATDU process.
Once the oil and suspended solids are removed from the influent in the API separator, the middle

48. 40
phase, water, is then pumped out to onsite storage tank for recycling. A portion of the recovered
water is pumped into a plate and frame heat exchanger where it is cooled and reused as cooling
process water for the VRU unit. The cooling media for the plate and frame heat exchanger is water.
The water is continuously cooled inside a cooling tower. The cooling tower can be equipped with
inlet air filtration system to minimize solids and slat particle from entering the unit; therefore,
lowering the water-blow down rate and water makeup. The outlet of the cooling tower can be
equipped with demisters to further reduce water loss. The API separator includes a fixed cover for
VOC emission control. To minimize problems associated with the oil emulsions in the separator
certain additives and or chemical treatment may become necessary during certain project for
proper phase separation.
Process Controls and Automation
The entire ATDU plant is centrally controlled using traditional microprocessor based components
or custom designed PC windows based process control software using either Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC) or Distributed Control System (DCS). Company furnishes PLC or DCS controls
with integrated Human Machine Interface software (HMI) and graphic screens for effective plant
control, monitoring, interlocking and data storage via standard key board and mouse. The computer
based process controls offer real-time access to all key plant parameters. This feature is designed to
enable the operator to improve system capacity, optimize fuel consumption, and protect the ATDU
equipment against accidental malfunctions. On-site training by the factory trained technicians is
furnished to familiarize the plant operators with all operational and maintenance aspect of the
plant. Each plant is furnished with electric switchgear motor control center or power panel fully
wired and tested at factory. The process control and instrumentation and electrical switchgear must
be placed inside a clean room furnished with air conditioning system for long life and proper
operation.
Our old practices of waste oil and contaminated soil storage and disposal are far from remotely
addressing today’s emphasis on environmental protection (subsurface soil, surface water bodies,
groundwater and oceans) by various national and international regulatory bodies. The general
public’s awareness of the potential hazards associated with living near or downwind from
contaminated waste sites and resentment of the same has been publicized from Nigerian villagers
dilemma with oil-soaked agricultural fields to drill cuttings contaminated tropical forests of the
Native tribes in Central and South America to the chlorinated hydrocarbon contaminated soil
stored at the former Union Carbide plant in Bhopal, India. The only proven treatment method to
effectively remove hydrocarbons from the oily sludge, tank and tanker bottoms and drill cuttings is

49. 41
the thermal process. The ATDU process offers a unique opportunity where the oily waste material
can be processed while not only separating the hydrocarbons and generating a clean reusable solid
but it also recovers hydrocarbons for beneficial recycling. The recovered oil can be recycled back
into the refining process, back to drilling mud formulation, or cleaned and used to fire the ATDU
burners or sold as fuel. In the case of contaminated soils the residual hydrocarbons are recovered
using the same methodology for final disposal or treatment of the hydrocarbons depending on the
toxicity.
4.7 Advantages of ATDU
1. Non-incineration, non-oxidizing technology for separating hydrocarbons from various
matrices
2. Separated oil can be re-used or sold
3. Separation efficiency is up to 99.9% at max furnace temperature
4. Drill cuttings if mix with as asphalt can be in road construction if mixed with
5. The solid (sand) can be mixed with cement to form block
6. The oil can be recycled into crude in a refinery or thermal plant
7. Recovery of oil and sand as a bye product.
Fig. 8
4.8 Disadvantages
1. Fuel consumption
2. Emitting of gases which are harmful to the human and the environment

50. 42
3. Mostly the oil based waste is mixed with sand before it is been made to pass through the
ATDU which create added cost
4.9 Drilling Waste Management (DWM) in the Oil and Gas Sector:
Drilling fluids are either circulated downhole with direct loss to the seabed along with displaced
cuttings, particularly while drilling well sections nearest to the surface of the seabed, or are re-
circulated to the offshore facility where they are routed to a solids control system. In the solids
control system, the drilling fluids are separated from the cuttings so that they may be re-circulated
downhole leaving the cuttings behind for disposal. These cuttings contain a proportion of residual
drilling fluid. The volume of cuttings produced will depend on the depth of the well and diameter
of the hole sections drilled.
The drilling fluid is replaced when its rheological properties or density of the fluid can no longer
be maintained or at the end of drilling program. These spent fluids are then contained for reuse or
disposal. Disposal of spent NADF by discharge to the sea is prohibited. Instead, they should be
transferred to shore for recycling or treatment and disposal.
Feasible alternatives for the disposal of spent NADF and drilled cuttings from well sections drilled
with NADF should be evaluated. Options include injection into a dedicated disposal well offshore,
injection into the annular space of a well, containment and transfer to shore for treatment and
disposal and, when there is no other option available, discharge to sea after treatment.
When discharge to sea is the only demonstrated alternative, a drilled cuttings and fluid disposal
plan should be prepared taken into account cuttings and fluid dispersion, chemical use,
environmental risk, and necessary monitoring. Discharge of cuttings to sea from wells drilled with
NADF should be avoided.

51. 43
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 RECOMMENDATION
The recommendation in this thesis does not represent the view of the general public during the
questionnaires but only represent the view of the group.
Waste management is an activity whereby the application of the REDUCE, REUSE, RECYCLE
principle should always be applied. In effect each hazardous waste steam must be addressed to
determine the optimum disposal option. All effort should be made to eliminate, reduce, or recycle
wastes at all times. In addition to elimination, reduction and recycling, it is also prudent to
minimise the amount of wastes sent to landfill sites. The sequence of evaluation is as follows:
Fig. 9
5.1 WASTE MANAGEMNT CYCLE
Waste Minimisation
Waste minimization is a process of elimination that involves reducing the amount of waste
produced in society and helps to eliminate the generation of harmful and persistent wastes,
supporting the efforts to promote a more sustainable society. Waste minimisation involves
redesigning products and/or changing societal patterns, concerning consumption and production, of
waste generation, to prevent the creation of waste.

52. 44
The most environmentally resourceful, economically efficient, and cost effective way to manage
waste is to not have to address the problem in the first place. Waste minimisation should be seen as
a primary focus for most waste management strategies. Proper waste management can require a
significant amount of time and resources; therefore, it is important to understand the benefits of
waste minimisation and how it can be implemented in all sectors of the economy, in an effective,
safe and sustainable manner.
Re-Use
To reuse is to use an item again after it has been used. This includes conventional reuse where the
item is used again for the same function, and creative reuse where it is used for a different
function. In contrast, recycling is the breaking down of the used item into raw materials which are
used to make new items. By taking useful products and exchanging them, without reprocessing,
reuse help save time, money, energy, and resources. In broader economic terms, reuse offers
quality products to people and organizations with limited means, while generating jobs and
business activity that contribute to the economy.
Historically, financial motivation was one of the main drivers of reuse. In the developing world
this driver can lead to very high levels of reuse, however rising wages and consequent consumer
demand for the convenience of disposable products has made the reuse of low value items such as
packaging uneconomic in richer countries, leading to the demise of many reuse programs. Current
environmental awareness is gradually changing attitudes and regulations, such as the new
packaging regulations, are gradually beginning to reverse the situation.
One example of conventional reuse is the doorstep delivery of milk in refillable bottles; other
examples include the retreading of tires and the use of returnable/reusable plastic boxes, shipping
containers, instead of single-use corrugated fiberboard boxes.
Recycle/ Compost
Recycling is a process to convert waste materials into reusable material to prevent waste of
potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage,
reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling) by reducing the need
for "conventional" waste disposal and lower greenhouse gas emissions as compared to plastic
production. Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third component of
the "Reduce, Reuse and Recycle" waste hierarchy.

53. 45
There are some ISO standards related to recycling such as ISO 15270:2008 for plastics waste and
ISO 14001:2004 for environmental management control of recycling practice.
Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, tires, textiles and
electronics. The composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste such as food or garden waste is
also considered recycling. Materials to be recycled are brought to a collection centre or picked up
from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned and reprocessed into new materials destined for
manufacturing.
Energy Recovery
Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into useable heat,
electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes, including combustion, gasification, pyrolization,
anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas (LFG) recovery. This process is often called waste-to-energy
(WTE). Energy recovery from waste is part of the non-hazardous waste management hierarchy.
Converting non-recyclable waste materials into electricity and heat generates a renewable1
energy
source and reduces carbon emissions by offsetting the need for energy from fossil sources and
reduces methane generation from landfills.
Oil and Gas operators should identify clearly all activities expected to generate waste especially
hazardous waste and the type of waste and expected volumes. Typical hazardous waste routinely
generated at offshore facilities include waste oil, oil contaminated rags, hydraulic fluids, used
batteries, empty paint cans, waste chemicals and used chemical containers, used filters, fluorescent
tubes, medical waste and among others.
All operators of fixed and mobile units must submit a Waste Management Plan (WMP) showing
roles and responsibilities, a list of expected waste streams generated and a Waste Location Plan
showing main points for segregated waste collection to the EPA. Oil and Gas operators must not
permitted to mix hazardous with non-hazardous waste and it must be a requirement that all
recyclables be collected into separate waste streams. Regulations must be set to use clear sacks for
collections so that through the handling chain, hazards / non-compliance / waste stream types can
be easily identified. No black plastic sacks must be allowed.
Hazardous waste must be packaged in accordance with UN packaging classification as applicable
for IMDG Dangerous Goods by Sea and IMDG declaration completed where necessary. All other
hazardous wastes (including resides) must be contained for safe transfer. Relevant MSDS must be
sent with each declared hazardous waste consignment.