For B.sc first year By Ramesh Yadav

1. Aedes aegypti
Aedes aegypti, the yellow fever mosquito, is a mosquito that can spread dengue fever,
chikungunya, Zika fever, Mayaro and yellow fever viruses, and other disease agents. The mosquito
can be recognized by white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the upper
surface of its thorax. This mosquito originated in Africa,but is now found in tropical, subtropical and
temperate regions throughout the world. Aedes aegypti is a vector for transmitting several tropical
fevers. Only the female bites for blood, which she needs to mature her eggs. To find a host, these
mosquitoes are attracted to chemical compounds emitted by mammals, including ammonia, carbon
dioxide, lactic acid, and octenol. Scientists at The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Agricultural Research Service have studied the specific chemical structure of octenol to better
understand why this chemical attracts the mosquito to its host. They found the mosquito has a
preference for "right-handed" (dextrorotatory) octenol molecules.
The yellow fever mosquito can also contribute to the spread of reticular cell sarcoma
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention traveler's page on preventing dengue fever
suggests using mosquito repellents that contain DEET (N, N-diethylmetatoluamide, 20% to 30%). It
also suggests:
1. Although Aedes aegypti mosquitoes most commonly feed at dusk and dawn, indoors, in
shady areas, or when the weather is cloudy, "they can bite and spread infection all year long
and at any time of day."[7][8]
2. Once a week, scrub off eggs sticking to wet containers, seal and/or discard them. The
mosquitoes prefer to breed in areas of stagnant water, such as flower vases, uncovered
barrels, buckets, and discarded tires, but the most dangerous areas are wet shower floors

2. and toilet tanks, as they allow the mosquitos to breed in the residence. Research has shown
that certain chemicals emanating from bacteria in water containers stimulate the female
mosquitoes to lay their eggs. They are particularly motivated to lay eggs in water containers
that have the correct amounts of specific fatty acids associated with bacteria involved in the
degradation of leaves and other organic matter in water. The chemicals associated with the
microbial stew are far more stimulating to discerning female mosquitoes than plain or filtered
water in which the bacteria once lived. [9]
3. Wear long-sleeved clothing and long trousers when outdoors during the day and evening.
4. Use mosquito netting over the bed if the bedroom is not air conditioned or screened, and for
additional protection, treat the mosquito netting with the insecticide permethrin.
Insect repellants containing DEET (particularly concentrated products) or p-menthane-3,8-diol (from
lemon eucalyptus) were effective in repelling Ae. aegypti mosquitoes, while others were less
effective or ineffective in a scientific study. [10]
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention article
on "Protection against Mosquitoes, Ticks, & Other Arthropods" notes that "Studies suggest that
concentrations of DEET above approximately 50% do not offer a marked increase in protection time
against mosquitoes; DEET efficacy tends to plateau at a concentration of approximately 50%". [11]
Mosquito control is currently the best method for disease prevention. This primarily includes source
reduction, pesticide spraying for larval control and "fogging" for adult control, or the use of mosquito
traps like the lethal ovitrap.
Although the lifespan of an adult Ae. aegypti is two to four weeks depending on conditions, [12]
the
eggs can be viable for over a year in a dry state, which allows the mosquito to re-emerge after a cold
winter or dry spell. [13]
The preference for biting humans is dependent on expression of the odorant receptor AeegOr4. [14]
New research is looking into the use of a bacterium called Wolbachia as a method of biocontrol.
Studies show that invasion of Ae. aegypti by the endosymbiotic bacteria allows mosquitos to be
resistant to the certain arboviruses such as dengue fever and Zika virus strains currently circulating.
The yellow fever mosquito's distribution has increased in the past two to three decades worldwide,
and it is considered to be among the most widespread mosquito species. [17]
Signs of Zika virus-
capable mosquito populations have been found adapting for persistence in warm temperate
climates. Such a population has been identified to exist in parts of Washington, DC, and genetic
evidence suggests they survived at least the last four winters in the region. One of the study
researchers noted. Ae. aegypti has been genetically modified to suppress its own species in an
approach similar to the sterile insect technique, thereby reducing the risk of disease. The
mosquitoes, known as OX513A, were developed by Oxitec, a spinout of Oxford University. Field
trials in the Cayman Islands, Brazil, and Panama have shown that the OX513A mosquitoes reduced
the target mosquito populations by more than 90%. [23][24]
This mosquito suppression effect is achieved
by a self-limiting gene that prevents the offspring from surviving. Male modified mosquitoes, which
do not bite or spread disease, are released to mate with the pest females. Their offspring inherit the
self-limiting gene and die before reaching adulthood—before they can reproduce or spread disease.
The OX513A mosquitoes and their offspring also carry a fluorescent marker for simple monitoring.
To produce more OX513A mosquitoes for control projects, the self-limiting gene is switched off
(using the Tet-Off system) in the mosquito production facility using an antidote (the antibiotic
tetracycline), allowing the mosquitoes to reproduce naturally. In the environment, the antidote is
unavailable to rescue mosquito reproduction, so the pest population is suppressed. [25]
The mosquito control effect is nontoxic and species-specific, as the OX513A mosquitoes are Ae.
aegypti and only breed with Ae. aegypti. The result of the self-limiting approach is that the released
insects and their offspring die and do not persist in the environment.

3. Phlebotomus (Sandfly)
Phlebotomus is a genus of "sand flies" in the Diptera family Psychodidae. In the past, they have
sometimes been considered to belong in a separate family, Phlebotomidae, but this alternative
classification has not gained wide acceptance.[1] The adult flies are nocturnal, spending the day
sheltering in dark humid places such as on bark, among foliage, among leaf litter, in animal burrows,
in termite mounds, and in cracks and crevices. At nightfall they emerge to feed on sugary secretions
and plant sap. The female needs a blood meal before it can reproduce; some species feed on
mammals including man, while others also feed on birds, reptiles and amphibians. The fly is a weak
flier and takes short flights to find a victim, adopting a "hopping" style of flight when close to a host.
Some sandflies are "exophagic", living entirely out of doors, while others are "endophagic" and
invade houses. In the tropics, adults may breed all year round, but in temperate climates the adults
die off in the autumn and new adults emerge in the spring
Cutaneous leishmaniasisLeishmania infantumLeishmania majorLeishmania tropica [2]
In the Old World, Phlebotomus sand flies are primarily responsible for the transmission of
leishmaniasis, [2]
an important parasitic disease, while transmission in the New World, is generally via
sand flies of the genus Lutzomyia. [3]
The protozoan parasite itself is a species of the genus
Leishmania. Leishmaniasis normally finds a mammalian reservoir in rodents and other small animals
such as canids (canine leishmaniasis) and hyraxes. The female sand fly carries the Leishmania
protozoa from infected animals after feeding, thus transmitting the disease, while the male feeds on
plant nectar.
The parasite Leishmania donovani is the main causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in
India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, where it is transmitted by the sand flies of the species Phlebotomus
argentipes. [4]
This species of sand flies was on the brink of elimination in India during the 1960s

4. following the widespread use of DDT for malaria control. However, there was a resurgence in their
population a decade later.[4]
Phlebotomus species are also vectors for bartonellosis, verruga peruana, and pappataci fever, an
arboviral disease caused by sandfly fever viruses such as the Naples and Sicilian strains of the
genus Phlebovirus (family Bunyaviridae), which also includes the closely related Toscana virus. [5][6]
In
Egypt, two species of medical importance are Phlebotomus papatasii and P. langerni. These flies
are short-lived. Females are bloodsuckers at night; males feed on plant juices. Adults are poor fliers,
they usually hop for short distances.
Morphology[
Phlebotomus mascittii
Adults are about 1.5–3.0 mm long and yellowish in colour, with conspicuous black eyes, and hairy
bodies, wings, and legs. The oval lanceolate wings are carried erect on the humped thorax. Males
possess long prominent genital terminalia known as claspers. Females have a pair of anal recti.
Lifecycle
Batches of thirty to seventy eggs are laid in cracks and holes in the ground, in crevices in masonry
and among leaf litter. The eggs require a humid environment to avoid desiccation, and hatch within
about twenty days. The larvae are mainly scavengers, consuming fungi, leaf mould, rotting
vegetation and detritus. The larvae are recognisable by their black heads, greyish twelve segmented
bodies and conspicuous feathery, branching bristles on head and body, and two pairs of long hairs
on the tip of the abdomen. The larvae pass through four instars over the course of three to four
weeks, before selecting an upright position and pupating, with the final larval skin remaining
attached to the pupa, the long hairs protruding. In cooler climates, the larvae may diapause over
winter. Adults emerge from the pupae after about one to two weeks. The whole cycle takes thirty to
sixty days unless the larvae diapause, when it may take four or five months. [7]
Laboratory colonies of
several Phlebotomus species have been established for experimental study of their biology,
behaviour, mutual relations with disease agents, and for testing methods of vector control. [8]
Behaviour
The adult flies are nocturnal, spending the day sheltering in dark humid places such as on bark, among
foliage, among leaf litter, in animal burrows, in termite mounds, and in cracks and crevices. At nightfall
they emerge to feed on sugary secretions and plant sap. The female needs a blood meal before it can
reproduce; some species feed on mammals including man, while others also feed on birds, reptiles
and amphibians. The fly is a weak flier and takes short flights to find a victim, adopting a "hopping"
style of flight when close to a host. Some sandflies are "exophagic", living entirely out of doors, while
others are "endophagic" and invade houses. In the tropics, adults may breed all year round, but in
temperate climates the adults die off in the autumn and new adults emerge in the spring.

5. Culex quinquefasciatus
Culex quinquefasciatus Say, 1823 (originally named Culex fatigans), commonly known as the
southern house mosquito, is a medium-sized mosquito found in tropical and subtropical regions of
the world. It is the vector of Wuchereria bancrofti, avian malaria, and arboviruses including St. Louis
encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Zika virus [1]
and West Nile virus. [2]
It is
taxonomically regarded as a member of the Culex pipiens species complex. [3]
Its genome was
sequenced in 2010, and was shown to have 18,883 protein-coding genes.
Description
The adult C. quinquefasciatus is a medium-sized mosquito and is brown in colour. The body is about
3.96 to 4.25 mm long. While the main body is brown, the proboscis, thorax, wings, and tarsi are
darker than the rest of the body. The head is light brown, with the lightest portion in the center. The
antennae and the proboscis are about the same length, but in some cases, the antennae are slightly
shorter than the proboscis. The flagellum has 13 segments that may have few or no scales. The
scales of the thorax are narrow and curved. The abdomen has pale, narrow, rounded bands on the
basal side of each tergite. Males can be differentiated from females in having large palps and
feathery antennae.[5]
The larva has a short and stout head. The mouth brushes have long yellow filaments used for
filtering organic materials. The abdomen consists of eight segments, the siphon, and the saddle.
Each segment has a unique setae pattern. The siphon is on the dorsal side of the abdomen, and is
four times longer than its breadth. The siphon has multiple setae tufts. The saddle is barrel-shaped
and located on the ventral side of the abdomen, with four long anal papillae protruding from the
posterior end.
Lifecycle
Mature C. quinquefasciatus females fly at night to nutrient-rich standing water to lay eggs. The
larvae feed on organic material in the water and require between five and eight days to complete
their development at 30 °C. The larvae pass through four larval instars, and towards the end of the
fourth instar, they stop eating and undergo moulting to give rise to pupae. After 36 hours at 27 °C,
adults emerge. The exact timing of development can vary depending on temperature. Both males
and females take sugar meals from plants. But after mating, the female seeks a blood meal on
mammals and birds. Ingested blood is necessary for egg development. A single female can lay up to
five rafts of eggs in a lifetime, with each raft containing thousands of eggs. The exact number varies
depending on climatic conditions.
As a vector
The southern house mosquito transmits zoonotic diseases that affect humans and wild and domestic
animals, such as lymphatic filariasis, avian malaria, St. Louis encephalitis, Western equine
encephalitis, and West Nile fever, and may be a vector of the Zika virus. [6]
It causes infection through
biting during blood meal. In the southern U.S., it is the primary vector of St. Louis encephalitis virus.
In India and Southeast Asia, it is the primary vector of Wuchereria bancrofti, a nematode that causes
lymphatic filariasis. It acts as an intermediate host for the helminth parasite by harbouring the larval
stages.[7]
It also transmits Plasmodium relictum, a malarial parasite of birds, and is its principal vector
in Hawaii. It is the definitive host for the malarial parasite as it harbours the sexual cycle.

6. It breeds profusely in dirty water collections, including stagnant drains, cesspools, septic tanks with
leaks, burrow pits, and almost all organic polluted water collections. In optimum temperature and
humidity, the lifecycle will be completed in seven days, passing through the egg, larval, pupal, and
adult stages. C. quinquefasciatus shows a preference to feed on the blood of birds,but also bite to
human.
Sitophilus oryzae
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Uniramia
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Dryophthoridae
Genus: Sitophilus
Species: Sitophilus oryzae
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The taxonomy of the Sitophilus group has been confused until recently, so that the value of much of the earlier
literature on these insects has been reduced, because of the difficulty of knowing the species to which it refers.
First described by Linnaeus in 1798 as Curculio oryza, the first named species of the group was later revised
by De Clairville and Scheltenburg in 1798 as Calandra oryzae, which uses the commonest generic synonym
for Sitophilus. Many workers subsequently recognized that two distinct forms of the species existed, which
were described as the 'large' and 'small' forms. In 1855, Motschulsky recognized the large form as a distinct
species, which he named Sitophilus zeamais. Unfortunately, few workers recognized this revision and the
name Calandra oryzae continued to be applied to all insects in this complex. Takahashi in 1928 and 1931
complicated matters by raising the small form to specific status as Calandra sasakii. This confused situation
continued until 1959, when Floyd and Newsom (1959) revised the complex; this was followed by a further
revision by Kuschel (1961). In these revisions it was shown that Linnaeus originally described the smaller
species and that Motschulsky's description of the larger species was valid. Both species were therefore placed
in the genus Sitophilus with the specific names proposed by Linnaeus and Motschulsky.
Unfortunately, the size difference between S. oryzae and S. zeamais is not consistent, so it is not possible to be
sure that references to the large and small forms of Calandra oryzae refer to S. zeamais and S. oryzae,
respectively. Therefore the only true and unconfused synonym of S. oryzae is Calandra sasakii; in pre-1960s
literature, C. oryzae 'small' and 'large' forms could refer to either S. zeamais or S. oryzae, and it is also possible
that some references to 'S. oryzae' in the 1960s and early 1970s literature actually relate to S. zeamais

7. misidentified by use of old keys. The genus Sitophilus and its species may be identified using the keys of
Gorham (1987) or Haines (1991).
Description
Eggs, Larvae and Pupae
These developmental stages are all found within tunnels and chambers bored in the grain and are thus not
normally seen. The eggs are shiny, white, opaque and ovoid to pear-shaped. The larva is white, stout and
legless. The pupa is also white but has legs, wings, and the snout of the fully-grown weevil.
Adults
Usually red-brown, dull with coarse microsculpture. Scutellum usually with lateral elevations closer together
than their length and evidently more than half as long as scutellum.
Males with median lobe of aedeagus evenly convex dorsally in cross section.
Females with lateral lobes of internal, Y-shaped sclerite broader and rounded apically, more narrowly
separated.
S. oryzae and S. zeamais are almost indistinguishable from each other externally; identification is by
exmaination of the genitalia. Both have the characteristic rostrum and elbowed antennae of the family
Curculionidae. The antennae have eight segments and are often carried in an extended position when the insect
is walking. Both species usually have four pale reddish-brown or orange-brown oval markings on the elytra,
but these are often indistinct. (See also S. zeamais.)
Both species can be separated from S. granarius by the presence of wings beneath the eltyra (absent in S.
granarius) and by having circular, rather than oval, punctures on the prothorax.
Distribution
S. zeamais and S. oryzae are found in all warm and tropical parts of the world, but S. oryzae may also be found
in temperate climates.

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