Digital Literacies - Literature review and policy starter paper

Paul Campbell B.Ed. Primary Education – Year 3 Digital Literacies

Digital Literacies

‘If we teach today as we taught yesterday, we rob our children of tomorrow.’

- John Dewy

The scene of this world is changing. With technological advancement, comes a shift in how we
communicate. But also, even greater shifts take place in the underlying structures and functions of
society overall(Kress, 2006). There is no doubt then, that the impact such societal advancements
have on children and young people is great, and consequently, has great implications for us as
educators.

There is no denying, digital literacy experiences are already vital components for people’s
functioning in society and it is clear digital media and technology play big parts in children’s lives. It is
therefore our instinctive duty as educators to bring these concepts and tools into the classroom so
that we can support our children and young people in developing their own skills, attitudes and
understandings fundamental todigital literacies.Experiences in digital literacies have the purpose of
giving children the opportunity to develop the transferable skills and competencieswhich they can
adapt to suit the advancements in technology, communication and society today and in the future.
But more importantly, digital technology transforms not only the traditional view of literacy, but also
the role of schools and the curriculum. If we ignored that, we are ignoring the fact that we live in an
advancedtechnological society. It is our duty togive children the tools that will enable them to be
active, confident and successful members of society. This requires fundamental change in policy,
practice and thinking(Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2010).

In my opinion, digital literacy, does not just enrich the curriculum, but actually transforms it. To
support this argument, Iam going to explore the concept of digital literacies in relation to the
curriculum. To do this, firstly I am going to discuss the key terms and concepts surrounding and
embedded in digital literacies. Then, the varying positions of theorists, researchers and practitioners
on the impact digital literacies have on learning, development and practice. And finally, I will discuss
what this means overall for the curriculum.

1 School of Education University of Strathclyde


KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS SURROUNDING AND EMBEDDED IN DIGITAL LITERACIES

Advancement in technology has without a doubt not just influenced, but changed our society
overall.

‘All children and young people need to be flexible and adaptable, with the capacity to continue
developing the new skills which they will need for the rapidly changing challenges of life, learning and
work in the modern world.’

- Building the Curriculum 4 – Skills for Learning, Skills for Life and Skills for Work
(Scottish Government, 2009)

There has been great debate and discussion surrounding the ‘new skills’ that children ‘will need for
the rapidly changing challenges of life, learning and work in the modern world.’ This is embedded in
the debate of what it actually means to be ‘digitally literate’. However, by no means is this a new
concept or discussion; it has been discussed and analysed as far back as the early 1990s (Bawden,
2008).

Gilster (1997), when defining digital literacy does not give a long list of competencies and skills that
help define or describe what it means to be digitally literate. He simply describes it as the ability to
make use and show understanding of various digital sources of information. He just views digital
literacy as, literacy in the digital age. This is a transformation of literacy, to suit the context of a
digital age. His view is still in line with the more traditional view, that literacy is about reading and
writing, but also looks at literacy as more the ability to read, write and handle information using the
technology available at the time in which we live. It changes the traditional view of reading and
writing to one that encompasses such activities into different contexts and its use for different
purposes. To me, this is a definition which is sustainable as well as encompassing of the literacy
requirements of an active citizen in the 21st century. It is sustainable in the sense that it talks about
reading and writing using the tools that are available in the time period. This encompasses literacy
before now, literacy currently, and further changes in literacy to come. It is a definition that can be
tailored and adapted to suit the time period, while encompassing what it means to be literate. It
does not discriminate between being literate and digitally literate. It views it essentially as the same
thing. It sees literacy as capabilities which allow someone to function in society, and in our time, this
involves the use of technology.

Supporting the idea of digital technology transforming the curriculum, Lankshear and Snyder (2000,
p.38) state that “with the arrival of new communication and information technologies... challenges
conventional ways of thinking about literacy in terms of text, as well as challenging our very idea of
texts.” This highlights the point that we can no longer stick with the tradition view of literacy
because society is changing, and with this, so is what it means to be literate(Lankshear C. &.,
2000).But it is not as clear cut as Glister (1997)’s definition. This definition emphasises the poin that
currently, it is challenging our ideas and perceptions of literacy, but doesn’t try and define what
literacy should now be in a technological age. This bodes well with Lankshear and Knobel (2006).
They believe that we are at a point in historical-cultural development when it comes to literacy, and



at this point, we do not fully understand how to deal with these new literacies educationally. This
highlights that it would be impossible to say whether or not digital literacy does in fact transform the
curriculum, because there is a lacking in understanding of the place it has in education today.

In contrast to this, and Glister (1997)’s opinion, Lanham (1995) takes quite a different line of
thinking. His opinion is that because this new digital technology can create and present information
in new ways, a new form of literacy was thus required so that people could understand these new
forms of presenting information.So it challenges Glister (1997)’s incorporation of digital technology
into a more encompassing take on literacy, and Lankshear and Knobel (2006) in the sense that he
views it as simply, a new literacy; that there is no problem seeing where it fits in.

However, Bawden (2008), challenges this definition, arguing that Lanham (1995)’s definition is too
restrictive or narrow, and influenced to greatly by the technology of the time he was writing it in. He
believes that Lanham (1995)’s take on it is more like a ‘media literacy’ which by definition implies
that what is needed is the ability to handle information in formats that are presented to the user of
various forms of technology. This is very different to Glister (1997), who’s definition encompassed
the necessary concepts, changes and technologies without narrowing it, which makes it still relevant
13 years later.

Glister (1997) states quite clearly his opinion that “Digital literacy is about mastering ideas, not
keystrokes.” This definition stands his view apart from others more ‘technical skills’ approach to
defining digital literacy. He believes digital literacy is:

“Cognition of what you see on the computer screen... It places demands upon you that were always
present, though less visible, in analogue media of newspapers and TV. At the same time, it conjures
up a new set of challenges that require you to approach networked computers without
preconceptions. Not only must you acquire the skill of finding things, you must also acquire the ability
to use these things in your life.”

His mention of ‘networked computers’ is a reminder straight away of the time he wrote this, a time
when the internet was taking off and was a relatively new experience for people (Bawden, 2008).
But looking into the meaning behind what he is saying, it is of relevance to digital literacies today. He
discusses the importance of the skill required to be literate in a digital age, the skills of picking out,
sorting, analysing and interpreting information we derive from digital sources. But as Bawden (2008)
discusses, many critics would view Glister (1997)’s definition of digital literacy as the same as the
definition of the safe and effective use of the internet, which he argues is not the case at all.In
defence, Glister (1997) states that it is in no way his intent to suggest giving up other sources of
information to solely use the internet, but rather consider it as one of many sources or tools for
retrieving information. This leads on to his opinion that, digital literacy is about being able to
retrieve, understand and use information in varying and multiple formats from a wide array of
sources. This is where his definition stands out. It is not solely based around digital technology, it is
more about ideas and mind-sets which are developed through the use of different skills; an essential
requirement for life in a digital society (Bawden, 2008).By default, this implies change;
transformation of how we teach, what we teach and how we teach it. But it is not as clear cut as
that, there are many opinions as to whether change is necessary.



THE VARYING POSITIONS OF THEORISTS, RESEARCHERS AND PRACTITIONERS ON THE
IMPACT DIGITAL LITERACIES HAVE ON LEARNING, DEVELOPMENT AND PRACTICE

Discussed earlier, there is great debate and variation surrounding the definition and meaning of
digital literacy. With this comes growing debate as to the importance of digital literacy across the
curriculum and whether or not it should be a fundamental aspect of learning and teaching practices
across the stages.

There are a countless number of ways in which we can engage children and young people in our
classrooms through digital technology. The possibilities are virtually endless. We can do this through
blogs; websiteswhere an individual or a group frequently create multi-modal texts,
incorporatingtext, photographs, video or audio files, and links, usually on a daily basis. Also,
podcasting; a method used to distribute audio or music, multimedia files over the internet for others
to play on mobile devices or computers. Another is wikis; a type of website that allows users to add,
remove, or otherwise edit and change most of the available content with relative ease. These are
just a very few of the multitude of ways we can incorporate digital media and technology into
classroom practice. But, what impact does this actually have on learning, on teaching, and why are
these impacts important?

Bearne(2007) is strong in her standpoint that digital technology plays an important role in
developing well rounded individuals with enquiring minds. Popular cultural and home textual
experiences now vary widely, and the texts children are reading vary greatly in format and context.
More and more, children are reading and writing using online, digital tools. One way is through
social media and networking; for example Facebook and MSN. This is just one aspect of the wide and
highly diverse textual landscape that young readers and writers are now exposed to. Digital
technology changes the format of what are now common texts for children. They are now screen-
based; digital. Most commonly we have websites, DVDs, virtual gaming environments; which
combine sound, text, photographic and digitally created visuals, email and many others. Supporting
this argument, Kress (2006) believes that with digital media becoming embedded within our
everyday social, cultural and economic environments, it’s vital not just for children, but for all people
to gain the skills integral to the use of these technologies, and thus gain from the benefits they
offer(Kress, 2006).

Bearne (2007) argues that this in itself creates a new challenge for us as educationalists.As teachers,
we need to be taking account of and putting the children’s cultural capital and individual learning
needs and the centre of all we do, in particular when it comes to literacy experiences. Children come
to school with great differences in their personal textual and life experiences outside school. It is this
diversity which enriches the experiences children have in school, and when acknowledged and
celebrated we can hopefully achieve successful literary and textual experiences for the children in
our care; experiences that suit the needs of a child in a digitally advanced society(Bearne, 2007).

Bearne(2007) also discusses multi-modal composition. Multi-modal texts can be composed on
paper, but the opportunities that can be taken advantage of on the computer, for example
importing pictures and videos, formatting text, adding sound and many others, means that the



composition of texts can be more varied, using features that wouldn’t be possible with pen to paper
(Bearne, 2007)

In contrast to Bearne (2007),Håvard Skarr (2009) offers an interesting perspective on the worth or
effectiveness of digital technology in promoting and extending learning; particularly when it comes
to multi-modal text creation.

Skarr, 2009, has carried out a great deal of research and analysis in the area of social semiotics.
Social semiotics stresses the social bases, rather than the systematic bases for the signs that we
produce. Such signs can be the products we create to convey our experiences, ideas or concepts, for
example through the written word or pictorial representations.

Social bases emphasise that we create a new sign each time we want to use one. So we go through
valuable cognitive effort when creating signs that we want to represent the message, experience or
concept we are trying to convey (Skarr, 2009).

Skarr (2009) believes that learning takes place through the semiotic work that we perform when we
create signs or texts – a process of making meaning. He argues that digital technology changes the
basic conditions for sign and text production and thus, also what we learn from it.

Writers create meaning from their texts through an inter-play between different mediums or modes,
for example the use of text and pictures. Digital media now make it easier to combine writing and
pictures to create multi-modal texts (Skarr, 2009).

At first, it seems Skarr (2009) doesn’t get to a point. He repeatedly emphasises the same sentence;
‘Digital technology and new media have given both multi-modality and writing a new role to play
and that this has consequences for our text production and what we can learn from it.’ But as the
article moves towards conclusion, he discusses school-based research that he carried out regarding
this exact point.

In his research, in a class of 8 and 9 year olds, he examines how children use text and images to
create their own stories using a computer, combining written text and images to create a multi-
modal piece of work on a subject or experience of their choice. What he noted was interesting. He
found that boys were quicker to search a picture on the internet and use that as the main part of
their piece, whereas girls were keener to write. This meant that boys were spending less time
making meaning from their experiences which they were conveying in the form of a story. They were
using pre-created images to use as a ‘sign’ or representation of the meaning they were trying to
convey which required less semiotic work, less cognitive effort which results in less learning.
Whereas girls were spending more time thinking carefully about word choice, sentence structure
and text formation which required a greater amount of semiotic work; meaning making, thus greater
cognitive effort and greater learning experiences.

Skarr (2009) makes clear that both writing and drawing require us to make choices on more levels.
However when using digital technology it is easier to pick out digital media images to use in our
representations, which requires much less semiotic work and less cognitive effort in making
meaning. So, digital media allows children to take short-cuts. So his point here is that we do learn
more from ‘naturally’ constructing or forming our signs or textual representations, without the help
of technology.



But an interesting point that Skarr (2009) concludes with is that it is not that digital design is easier,
but it can be easier. Digital media opens up two possibilities, first, the possibility of creating more
skilful and effective multi-modal texts. Secondly, the possibility of creating texts with less semiotic
work that was required previously. So he does not entirely write off digital media, and acknowledges
that it gives children the opportunity to make their own text richer and more advanced but that also
gives them the opportunity to disguise their areas for development as writers.

Skarr (2009) concludes by making clear his opinion that,

‘From a learning perspective, writing should retain its dominant and privileged position even in the
new media age. Writing forces us to make ourselves visible through our own choices of both signified
(interest) and signifier (representation). It is these choices we learn from.’

Therefore, Skarr (2009) believes that writing should still have precedence over the advantages digital
technology offer when it comes to creating texts, because of writing’s cognitive advantages.

Linking to some of Skarr (2009)’s points, Building the Curriculum (BtC) 4 and other BtC documents
regularly make reference to the ‘effective’ use of technology as an integral part of learning and
teaching (Scottish Government, 2009). The regular emphasis on the effective use of digital
technology across the curriculum, not only highlight it’s necessity in education today, but also the
understanding that technology should not just be an ‘add on’, or an ‘extra’ in the classroom, but it
has great benefits for learning and teaching when used appropriately(Learning and Teaching
Scotland, 2000). This compliments what Skarr (2009) has to say; that digital technology, while
providing opportunities for learning, can also hinder learning or mask areas for development when
not used effectively.

Skarr (2009)’s view bodes well with Glister (1997)’s definition of digital literacy. He viewed it as
incorporating the skills and competencies in making decisions on the tools to use, and not just using
technology because we can. This thus implies the need for well-planned and thought out use of
technology when it comes to learning and teaching.

‘The way to modernize our work is not to use a computer instead of a typewriter and call it
innovative.’

– Heidi Jacobs

This emphasises that it is our responsibility as skilled professionals to be clear in our understanding
of the effectiveness of the technology and tools that we offer to children in our classrooms. It’s not a
matter of using digital technology for the sake of it. There needs to be a clear purpose; a rationale
behind what we do. It often seems we have seen curricular and legislative transformation relating to
digital literacies, just no in practice. We have a great responsibility in developing the digital literacies
that children need in order to be successful, confident and responsible members of society. To
facilitate this, we need to ensure we offer opportunities for effective learning and development in
what is encompassed by digital literacy.

Digital literacy experiences are vital in learning and teaching practices across the stages, because this
is one way In which we can ensure that all children and young people, not just those who are well



off, can use technology effectively and in meaningful ways, and can feel included and active in our
increasingly digital culture; socially and secularly.The BBC recently reported on the ‘digital divide’
which noted that more than a million school children, mainly from low-socio-economic backgrounds,
lack computer access at home (BBC, 2010).

Digital literacy experiences have an important role in tackling the ‘digital divide’. This term is used to
describe the large inequalities that exist between people who are able to access and use ICT
effectively and those who can’t. Not only do these differences,more often than not, run along socio-
economic lines, they can also contribute to sustaining them. The least-advantaged in society may
have less access to computers, the internet and also, meaningful ICT education. Their inability to use
a computer effectively is likely to prevent them from getting a lot of jobs, as well as from
participating in government and other services which often requires online participation. This has
often been described as the “participation gap”: “the fundamental inequalities in young people’s
access to new media technologies and the opportunities for participation they represent”(Hague,
2009).

Tackling digital inclusion, and ensuring equality of digital participation opportunities for all young
people, requires not only access to technology but also the digital literacy skills and knowledge
which will allow people to read, write, create and communicate using such technology (Hague,
2009).

‘optimal use of ICT in education is... not simply a matter of giving children encouragement in their
studies while they gain a technical facility with the so-called tools of the future, but more significantly
about facilitating a transformation in the nature of knowledge and the learning process.’
(Hague, 2009)

Our jobs as teachers and education professionals is to help children find their own voice, and to
enable to them to develop and construct their own understanding of the world. And to do so,
transformation of curricular policy and practice is required, to ensure a match between education
and today’s society.

Jukes and Dosaj (2006) says that “today’s generation has grown up in a digital landscape. For most of
them, there’s never been a time in their lives when computers, cell phones, video games and the
Internet haven’t surrounded them.” So we need to make sure there isn’t a mismatch between the
learner and the experiences that we are offering. This is vital in ensuring the education and learning
they take from their school experiences is relevant, contextualised, purposeful and transferable to
their daily lives; now and in the future (Jukes, 2006).By ignoring such familiar contexts and tools that
children and parents are increasingly using, we are ignoring what they value. Ultimately this will
alienate and disengage learners, hindering their pursuit of life-long learning (Davies, 2008).



WHAT THIS MEANS OVERALL FOR THE CURRICULUM

‘The literacy and English framework reflects the increased use of multimodal texts, digital
communication, social networking and the other forms of electronic communication encountered by
children and young people in their daily lives. It recognises that the skills which children and young
people need to learn to read these texts differ from the skills they need for reading continuous prose.’

- Literacy and English – Principles and Practice (Scottish Executive, 2009)

The development of digital literacies is a very interactive and engaging process for students. This is a
positive indicator that it has been incorporated into the curriculum from the outset, emphasising
again its importance and central role in allowing children to attain to their fullest potential.From the
previous discussion, it had become clear, transformation of the curriculum to incorporate digital
literacies requires transformation of practice, not curricular documentation.

CfE aims to do is to harness the best practice in teaching and learning, including the use of digital
technology, and extended across all educational establishments and school curriculums to ensure
equality of opportunity, and that all children are experiences a top class education (Russell, 2010).
While we have examples of best practice, and a developing understanding of the importance of
digital literacy experiences, this is something that needs to be harnessed, analysed, discussed and
debated among teachers and other educational professionals. From this, we can develop a plan for
action, centred on an understanding of the needs and wants of children in a technological society.
Only then, will we be able to reach a point in time where we can say our education system really
meets the needs of 21st century children, and the advancing and developing technological society
that we live in.

To aid this, the Scottish Government is committed to producing a ‘technologies for learning
strategy’. They agree with points raised from a recent European Commission review, which detailed
the broad positive outcomes from the use of technologies for learning which included cognitive
processing, independence, critical thinking and engagement. An interesting point that it also
highlighted was that technology can play a part in enhancing a child-centred curriculum and
collaborative approaches to learning and teaching across the stages(Learning and Teaching Scotland,
2010). This bodes very well with the principles of CfE.

But the use of digital technologies and the impact such practices and policies are having on learning
and teaching varies greatly across Scotland’s learning landscape.

The Scottish Government want a nation that, together, embraces and puts to full use the innovative
and creative potential of technologies in learning, when done in an effective, natural and consistent
way; integrated into everyday learning and teaching. They see it as vital if we are to meet the needs
and aspirations of the children and young people in our care, and of course, to further the country’s
economic growth (Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2010).

To be able to reach a point where the education community and teachers and professionals have a
clear understanding of the importance in developing digital literacies, ways need to be found to
engage and enthuse the education community. Awareness has to be developed of the importance of



Technologies for Learning which can in turn influence their participation and contribution to
developing this within our curriculum so that all learners can benefit from the ‘combined wisdom,
support and advice that on-line environments and other technologies can offer’ (Learning and
Teaching Scotland, 2010).

This is essential if we are to contribute to a wealthier and a smarter Scotland whose young people
are successful learners, confident individuals, effective contributors and responsible
citizens(Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2010).

In conclusion, the world is changing. Communication is changing. Literacy is changing. A traditional
approach to literacy and to the curriculum does no longer suit or meet the needs of a citizen in a
technologically advanced, global society (Lankshear C. &., 2008). Transformation is essential if we
want a match between learners and the curriculum. Incorporating their cultural capital as the basis
for our curriculum and ensuring experiences are relevant, contextualised and purposeful by default,
involves the effective use digital technology and digital literacy experiences. This will allow our
children and young people to develop skills and competencies which are transferable and adaptable
to suit the needs of global citizens as technology and communication continues to develop, change
and transform.

So again,

‘If we teach today as we taught yesterday, we rob our children of tomorrow.’

- John Dewy



Section 2:

A rationale for including digital literacy activities as part of the language policy statement for the
school.

‘We are in the middle of a revolution in how knowledge is created, transmitted and organised that is
similar significance to that which followed the invention of printing.’

- Seb Schmoller

Digital technologies are now abundant in our everyday life; personally and secularly. With such a
rapid change, the greater the urgency is for teachers and schools to respond to these changes; to
change themselves.

New technologies are beginning to be used in literacy education, thus new literacies are now being
engaged with (Knobel, 2006). These new literacies are of vital importance for our children and young
people. If they are going to have the knowledge, skills, capabilities and thinking abilities to be able to
function and participate in an advanced technological society, they need to master these new, digital
literacies. Integral to this are the skills in: online social networking, maintaining privacy in online
environments, identity management, creating content, organising content, reusing and repurposing,
filtering and selecting and self-presenting (Wheeler, 2010).

Many teachers argue however that such technologies and social networks are personal tools and
have no place in school, a place of learning. But they couldn’t be more wrong. Technology and social
networking is here to stay. If they are banned, or not used in schools, children and young people will
still use them. Therefore, children need to be taught the safe and effective use of such tools and
networks. By ignoring such familiar contexts and tools that children and parents are increasingly
using, we will alienate learners if we are ignoring what they value. The BBC recently published an
article detailing the inequalities in access to the internet and computers many children have outside
of school(BBC, 2010). Therefore, we should feel an instinctive duty to try and balance out these
inequalities and provide equal access for children, which can start in school. Added to this, through
the use of digital technology and mediums in the development of digital literacies, students are
developing their understanding and awareness of the potential of the voice they have that spans out
with their local community. They see first-hand the impact they can have as a part of a global
community, and how social networking facilitates this(Davies, 2008).

An example of this in practice is that of Martin Waller, a Year 2 teacher at a primary school in
England. He has begun using the social networking system, Twitter, as a means of engaging the
children in his class, in the process of evaluating and reflecting on their own learning. Twitter is a
social networking system which if free to join. You can ‘tweet’ up to one hundred and forty
characters, and this has been termed ‘micro-blogging’. Other users can follow and reply to tweets.
He finds it a valuable tool in his classroom because it creates a greater understanding of real world
literacy and helped develop digital literacy skills within this online community of practice(Waller,



2010). He believes that using such online social and collaborative communications adds to children’s
development as critical readers of an extensive range of texts and helps them to understand the vast
array of domains that literacy embodies in our society today.

It can be seen from Waller (2010)’s account that incorporating digital literacy practices within the
school curriculum and embedding it in classroom practices need not mean more work for teacher
(Thomson, 2007). Obviously there are safety issues to be considered, which Waller (2010) describes
as a valuable learning process for children themselves, which will help them think about safety in
their personal use of technology and social networks.

Digital literacy transforms the curriculum. So, by definition, it requires change (Hertz, 2009). Change
won’t be easy. Introducing digital literacy experiences and new technological-based tools is a change
process that triggers a range of responses. Whilst such changes may be embraced by many, for
others it can challenge their intrinsic values and beliefs as teachers. Added to this, time, skills and
confidence can be barriers when aiming for whole school implementation, even with relevant
examples of how use of the tool and exploration of the concept can enhance learning(Web, 2010).

But, socially-based, action-oriented professional development,suited to the individual needs of the
school, can addressnegative responses and support a high-visibility, community-based approach to
embedding digital literacy experiences in classroom practice. In doing so, this can promote lasting
change to attitudes and practice(HMIE, 2006).

‘The most important thing schools can do is not to use technology in the curriculum more, but to use
it more effectively.’

- Unknown

So for us, we need to reflect on, the role and purpose of digital literacies across the curriculum; how
we can incorporate such practices into the curriculum, and how we can evaluate the effectiveness of
our efforts to use digital technology as a means of enhancing and enriching the curriculum.

So, if we want to facilitate learning that is relevant, contextualised, authentic and embedded in
children’s cultural capital and daily experiences, digital technology and literacy experiences have to
be at the core of the curriculum.



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