Basics of doing research project

1. Research Methodology
MSU 07506
by
Bonaventure Mshibika
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2. The Meaning of research
• Research means finding answers to the
questions.
• It is a systematic search for truth.
• Through research, new and original
information, ideas about the world we live in,
are obtained.
• Research is a search for knowledge.
• Research is defined as a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information
to fill in gaps in knowledge on a specific
topic.
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3. The Meaning of research contd….
5 Key Characteristics:
• Systematic – research process
• Logical – induction/deduction
• Empirical – evidence based
• Reductive – generalisation
• Replicable – methodology
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4. The Meaning of research contd….
• Research is systematic, because it follows certain steps
that are logical in order. These steps are:
1. Understanding the nature of problem to be studied
and identifying the related area of knowledge.
2. Reviewing literature to understand how others
have approached or dealt with the problem.
3. Collecting data in an organized and controlled
manner so as to arrive at valid decisions.
4. Analyzing data appropriate to the problem.
5. Drawing conclusions and making generalizations.
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5. Amount of
knowledge
Advancement of
Technology
Utility of
Applications
Quality of
Life
Basic Research
Applied Research
Application
Development
Curiosity
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6. Objectives of Research
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it. – Exploratory or
formulative research studies
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or group. –
Descriptive research studies
• To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with
something else. – Diagnostic research studies
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables. Hypothesis-testing studies
The general objectives of Research are:
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7. Types of Research
• Descriptive Vs Analytical Research
• Applied Vs Fundamental Research
• Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research
• Conceptual Vs Empirical Research
• Other Types:
 Based on time (one-time research and Longitudinal
research)
 Based on environment (Field-setting research,
Laboratory research and simulation research)
 Based on objective (Exploratory research and Formalized
research
The basic types of research are as follows:
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8. Descriptive Vs Analytical Research
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose is to describe the state of affairs as it
exists at present. The researcher has no control
over the variables. He only reports what
happened or what is happening.
• In Analytical research, the researcher uses facts
or information already available and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the
material/phenomenon.
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9. Applied Vs Fundamental Research
• Applied research at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society, industry or
an organization. It is a.k.a action research
• Fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalization and with the formulation of
theory. It is a.k.a Pure or Basic research
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10. Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research
• Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomenon that can be
expressed in terms of quantity or numerical
terms
• Qualitative research is concerned with
qualitative or categorical phenomena. It is a.k.a
attitude/opinion research. Analysis of words,
sentences, stories etc.
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11. Conceptual Vs Empirical Research
• Conceptual research is the one which is related
to some abstract ideas or theory. It is generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop
new concepts or to interpret the existing ones
• Empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for
system or theory. It is data-based research
coming up with conclusions which are capable
of been verified by observation or experiment. It
is a.k.a Experimental type of research.
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12. Research Approaches
Two basic approaches
1. Quantitative approach
Three sub-categories for this
 Inferential approach
 Experimental approach
 Simulation approach
2. Qualitative approach
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13. Research Methods Vs Methodology
• Research methods are all those methods /
techniques that are used for conducting a research.
That is, data collection methods, statistical
techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknown,
and those methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained.
• Research methodology is a science of studying
how research is done scientifically. It involves the
steps that are generally adopted by the researcher
in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them.
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14. Sources and Types of research data
• Sources:
Primary sources
Secondary sources
• Types
 Primary data vs secondary data
 Qualitative vs quantitative data
 Cross-sectional data, time series data and
Longitudinal/panel data
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15. Data collection methods
• Questionnaire (mail, self-administered, website,etc)
• Direct Field Observation (Participant or non-
participant)
• Opinionnaire
• Focus Group Discussion
• Interview (face-to-face, telephone, in-depth,
focused, structured, unstructured, etc.)
• Key informants
• Documentation
• Experimentation
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16. Research Techniques Vs Methods
• Research techniques refers to the behavior and
instruments we use in performing research
operations such as making observations, recording
data, techniques of processing data, etc.
• Research Methods refer to the behavior and
instruments used in selecting and constructing
research techniques
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17. Research Techniques Vs Methods
Type Methods Techniques
Field Research Participant
observation
Interactional
recording,
possible use of
tape recorder,
photographic
techniques, etc.
Personal interview Interviewer uses a
detailed schedule
with open and
closed questions
Non-Participant
direct observation
Observational
behavior scales,
use of score
cards, etc. 17

18. Research Techniques Vs Methods
Type Methods Techniques
Library Research Analysis of
documents
Statistical
compilations and
manipulations,
reference and
abstract guides,
content analysis,
etc.
Analysis of
historical records
Recording of
notes, content
analysis, tape and
film listening and
analysis, historical
sites visits and
analysis 18

19. The Research Process
• Formulating the research problem
• Extensive Literature review
• Developing the hypothesis/Research questions
• Preparing the research methodology (research design
and sample design)
• Collecting the data
• Analyze the data (and test the hypothesis if any)
• Generalization and interpretation of the results
• Preparation of the report or presentation of the results
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20. RESEARCH PROCESS
Define
Research
Problem
Review
Concepts
And
theories
Review
Previous
Research
findings
Formulate
hypothesis
Design
Research
(Including
Sample
Design)
Collect
Data
Analyse
Data
Interpret
and
report
FF
F
F F
FF
I
II
III IV V VI VII
F
FF
Feed Back
Feed Forward
Review the literature
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21.  Purpose clearly defined.
 Research process detailed.
 Research design thoroughly planned.
 High ethical standards applied.
 Limitations frankly revealed.
 Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs.
 Findings presented clearly.
 Conclusions justified.
 Researcher’s experience reflected.
Criteria of a Good Research

22. Criteria of a Good Research contd….
In other words we can state the qualities of a good
research as follows:
• Good research is systematic: - Structured with
specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence
in accordance to well defined set of rules
• Good research is logical: - Guided by rules of
logical reasoning (induction and deduction)
• Good research is empirical: - Data based
• Good research is replicable: - Methodology
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23. Problems in Research
 Uncontrollable variables
 Human tendencies
 Time and money
 Lack of computerization
 Insufficient interaction between university research
departments and business establishments
 Lack of confidence on the part of business units to
give information

24. • Research topic refers to subject, issue or area of
under study. It is a broader picture where someone
wants to carry out the study.
• Research title refers to heading, label or tag of the
research. It describes what the study is about. It
portrays a quick summary of the key idea(s) in a
research proposal or report. A title is like a „min skirt‟
– It is long enough to cover what is supposed to
cover and short enough to reveal what is not
required to be shown.
• Research topics and titles are formulated from
research ideas and questions
Research Topic Vs Research Title

25. Research Idea
1. Job recruitment via the
internet
2. Advertising and share prices
3. The future of trade unions
Research Question
1. How effective is recruiting for
new staff via the internet in
comparision with the
traditional methods.
2.How does the running of a TV
advertising campaign
designed to boost the image
of a company affect.
3. What are the strategies that
trade unions should adopt to
ensure their future viability?

26. • Identify what interests or puzzles you in an area
of study
• Identify the key words for the topic
• Define the topic
• Formulate the topic
Example of topics:
 Terrorism incidences in Kenya
 Prevalence of thieves in Arusha City
Steps in Topic Selection

27. • It is researchable
• It attracts the interest of the researcher
• It makes a contribution to knowledge
• It is provocative i.e it is open to to varied views
and interpretations
• It is clear and focused
Qualities of an effective research topic

28. • Choosing a topic that is too wide
• Choosing a topic that is too complex
• Poor timing
• Limited accessibility to required materials and
respondents
Challenges encountered in research topic
selection

29. • Identify the key words for the title
• Reflect on the key issues: - Dependent and
independent variables, objectives, etc.
• Formulate the title: - Try to link the key variables
using terms such us; “The effect of…, The impact
of…, An assessment of…, Analysis of…,
Determinants of…, etc.
• Evaluation – if the dependent and independent
variables can be identified (title should be clear
and specific)
Steps in Title Selection

30. • It should be brief and specific. (scope)
• It should be in line with the set objectives
• It should be clear and unambiguous. (conceptual)
• It should reflect a relationship between the
dependent and independent variables
• The title should portray an issue that is
researchable.
• It should be precise. (words)
• It should be catchy. (Attractive)
Qualities of an effective research title

31. • Choosing a title that is not specific. – Title which
is open to varied interpretations. Eg. Crime in
Arusha
• Writing a title that is too wordy
• Poorly formulated titles. Eg. Understanding drug
abuse in Tanzania. („‟Word understanding”???)
• Lack of consistency
Challenges encountered in research title
selection

32. Research Proposal
• A research proposal is a statement expressing
an intention to carry out research. It specifically
states:
 What type of research one is going to do
 Why one is going to do a research
 How that research is going to be carried out
 When it will be carried out
 How much it will cost
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33. Contents of a research proposal
A research proposal includes three main chapters:
• Chapter One: Introduction (Background of the problem,
Statement of the problem, Research objectives,
Hypothesis/ research questions, Scope of the study,
Significance/justification of the study, theoretical
framework, limitations of the study,)
• Chapter Two: Literature review (theoretical review and
empirical review)
• Chapter Three: Research Methodology (research design
and sample design)
References, budget, time frame and other appendices are
includes after chapter three
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34. • It is expected to introduce chosen research
problem / topic covering its origin, meaning,
purpose, developments at international /
national / regional level and its present status.
• The very idea of this component in the research
proposal is to acquaint readers with the
research problem.

35. Background of the study
• In research the term „background‟ refers to the
setting or position of the study. It is a brief overview
of the problem the researcher aspires to tackle.
• It helps to convince that the problem or opportunity
exists and that it should be addressed
• It demonstrates the researcher‟s view of the
research problem
• It shows that the researcher knows the study area
as he/she is familiar with what has preceded.
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36. Qualities of an effective Background to
the study
• It is brief and specific
• It engages the interest of the reader
• It gives the reader a preview of the research
problem
• It gives the reader an idea of the how the
proposal is structured
• The language used is simple and
straightforward
• It is informative and persuasive
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37. Steps in writing an effective
background to the study
• Reflection
• Brainstorming
• Material compilation
• Formulation
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38. RESEARCH PROBLEM
What is a research problem?
 The term „problem‟ means a question or issue to be
examined.
 Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need
which a researcher experiences in the context of either
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.

39. HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A
RESEARCH PROBLEM?
 Stakeholders‟ complaints
 Conversation with organization‟s staff
 Observation of inappropriate behaviour or conditions
in the organization
 Deviation from the organization‟s target
 Success of the competitors
 Relevant reading of published material (trends,
regulations)
 Organization‟s records and reports.

40. SOURCES OF PROBLEMS
 Reading (Literature review)
 Academic Experience
 Daily Experience
 Exposure to Field Situations
 Consultations
 Brainstorming
 Research
 Intuition
 Stakeholders‟ concerns
 Declarations (e.g. world declaration of the
Rights of children),conferences, workshops and
seminars.
 Research themes given by funding agencies e.g.
WB, IMF, USAID

41. CRITERIA OF SELECTION
Factors
 Internal / Personal criteria – Researcher‟s Interest,
Researcher‟s Competence, Researcher‟s own
Resource: finance and time.
 External Criteria or Factors – Researchability of the
problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the
Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social
Relevance, Research Personnel.

42. Identification / Selection of the Problem
Formulation of the Problem
 There are two ways of stating a problem:
Posting question / questions
Making declarative statement / statements
IDENTIFICATION /
SELECTION OF THE
RESEARCH PROBLEM

43. Steps in defining a Problem
1. Statement of the problem in a general way
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing ideas through discussions
5. Rephrasing the research problem

44. • A research problem refers to an issue or concern that puzzles
the researcher.
• Proposed research topic should have a genuine need for
investigation.
• Do the following need an investigation ?
o High turn over of employees of a reputed five star hotel
affecting its revenue.
o An increasing trend of farmers‟ suicides in a particular
region.
o Decelerating sales trend of a well known and popular
automobile company affecting its sales revenue.
o An increase in military expenditure in a particular
country
Yes

45. Statement of the Problem
• The research topic should be narrowed to a
specific research problem and statement.
• Choose a particular aspect, a particular time
and area or a combination of both can narrow
down a research problem.
• The problem statement should clearly show the
knowledge gap that the research intends to
close.
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46. Statement of the Problem
In stating a problem:
• Try as much as possible to quantify the problem. Eg.
Don‟t simply say many households live below poverty line: say say
how many or what percent, where, and at what time period, etc.
• Continue with whether there is any study on this issue,
what was established, and what is missing (gap in
knowledge or practice). List at least two studies
• Provide a convincing argument that available knowledge
is not sufficient to address the problem.
• Explain why further research in necessary and how your
information is going to be used in solving the problem.
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47. REVIEW
OF
LITERATURE
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48. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
 A literature review is the comprehensive study
and interpretation of literature related to a
particular topic.
“…it evaluates a body of writings about a specific
topic…” Knopf (2006)
 It is an extensive survey of all available past studies
relevant to the field of investigation.
 It gives us knowledge about what others have found
out in the related field of study and how they have
done so.

49. PURPOSE OF REVIEW
 To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.
 Enables the researcher to identify the gaps of the study
 To identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships
between them and to formulate researchable hypothesis.
 To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods
of measuring concepts and techniques of analysis.
 To identify data sources used by other researchers.
 To learn how others structured their reports.
 It helps in delimiting the research problem.

50. SOURCES OF LITERATURE
 Books and Journals
 Electronic Databases
Bibliographic Databases
Abstract Databases
Full-Text Databases
 Govt. and Industry Reports
 Internet
 Research Dissertations / Thesis

51. Points To Be Kept In Mind While
Reviewing Literature.
Read relevant literature.
Refer original works.
Read with comprehension.
Read in time.
Index the literature.

52. What to look for in the literature?
To be able to summarize and evaluates the state of
knowledge on a particular subject, literature review must
address four tasks:
1. Determine what each study has examined, beginning with the
purpose, methods, and findings.
2. Determine what each study has concluded.
3.Summarize the collective results by organizing results of the
review into 3 categories:
– what the existing studies have in common,
– what the existing studies disagree about, (area of debate)
– what the existing studies overlooked or ignored.
4. Reach a judgment about the quality of the literature overall:
– What are the key findings that appear to be valid,
– Where is more work needed? GAPS?? (questions no one has
attempted to answer)
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53. Framing contribution to Knowledge
• Literature review is an attempt to summarize the
existing state of knowledge, and/or to frame the
expected contribution of the study to the existing
knowledge.
• The contribution might be in the form of:
– New factual information, a new theoretical proposition,
– A new policy proposal.
– Information or reasoned argument that changes our
degree of confidence in an existing belief.
– New methodological approach of carrying out a
research.
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54. Common Mistakes in Reviewing
Literature (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996)
• Researchers not clearly relating the findings of the literature
review to their own study;
• Researchers not taking sufficient time to define and identify
the best sources related to the topic
• Researchers relying on secondary sources rather than
primary sources
• Researchers accepting another researcher‟s findings and
interpretations as valid, rather than examining them critically
by considering all aspects of the research including context,
design and analysis
• Researchers reporting isolated statistical results rather than
synthesizing them
• Researchers not considering contrary findings and alternative
interpretations in synthesizing literature.
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55. Statement of
Research Objectives
Defining Problem, Results in
Clear Cut Research Objectives..
Analysis of
the Situation
Symptom Detection
Problem Definition

56. Conceptual Framework
• Literature review should come up with and/or
justify important variables/factors of the study.
• Based on the variables identified, a conceptual
model is developed, which demonstrates how
one theorizes or makes logical sense of the
relationships among variables.
• Qn: Differentiate Conceptual framework from
theoretical framework and analytical framework
as used in research
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57. ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
 Research Objectives are the specific components of
the research problem, that you‟ll be working to
answer or complete, in order to answer the overall
research problem. - Churchill, 2001
 The objectives refers to the questions to be
answered through the study. They indicate what we
are trying to get from the study or the expected
results / outcome of the study.

58. ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
• The objectives should be formulated in
operational/measurable terms with reference to
the issue(s) upon which the research focuses.
• General objective: This is the overall aim/goal of
the research.
• Specific objectives: These are the concrete
issues in the research that are directly addressed
by the methodology and which are followed in
order to achieve the general objective.
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59. ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
 Research Objectives should be clear and achievable.
 The objectives may be specified in the form of
either statements or questions.
 Generally, they are written as statements, using the
word “to”. (For example, „to discover …‟, „to
determine …‟, „to establish …‟, etc. )
 Research objectives must be “SMART” (i.e
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant/Realistic,
Time bound)

60. Research Question
1. Why have org‟s
introduced team briefing?
2. How can the
effectiveness of team
briefing methods be
measured?
3. Has team briefing been
effective?
Research Objective
1. To identify org‟s
objectives for team
briefing schemes
2. To establish suitable
effectiveness criteria for
team briefing methods
3.To describe the
effectiveness of team
briefing

61. Importance of Research Objectives
• Guide decisions in selection of respondents,
research instruments and the study area.
• Influence all component of the research design
including data analysis and report writing
• Help to limit the scope of literature review
• Serve to clarify the variables of the study
• They serve as a guide for evaluation
• Facilitate sequencing of research activities
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62. Challenges Faced in Specific
Objectives Formulation
• Lack of clarity/ focus of what to accomplish
• Over ambitious – Too many objectives, too wide
scope not in line with available resources (time
and finance)
• Objectives do not follow a logical order
• Unrelated objectives
• Being not specific
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63. FORMULATION
OF
HYPOTHESIS

64. HYPOTHESIS
 Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that
relates an independent variable to a dependent
variable.
 It states the researcher‟s expectations concerning the
relationship between the variables in the research
problem
 After collecting data, a researcher can support the
hypothesis or reject it
 Hypothesis must contain at least one independent
variable and one dependent variable.

65. Types of Hypotheses
• Conceptual Hypothesis: Statement about the r/ship
between theoretical concepts. These are mainly ideas
that can never be directly tested because they can not
be measured. They must be operationalized or made
measurable before they are tested. Examples??
• Research Hypothesis: A statement about expected
r/ship between observable or measurable events.
Examples??
• Statistical Hypothesis: Statement about an expected
r/ship between the numbers representing statistical
properties of data. They are of two types; Null
Hypothesis (H0) and Alternative Hypothesis (H1).
Examples???
65

66. Directional Vs Non-Drirectional
Hypothesis
• Directional Hypothesis: In stating the
hypotheses, the terms such as positive, negative,
greater/less than etc. give the direction of relations:
E.g. The higher the education level, the higher the
income.
• Nondirectional hypothesis: These are postulate
relationships, with no sense of direction.
E.g. There is a relationship between Education level and
Income
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67. Research questions
• There are issues that the researcher seeks to
answer.
• They are related to the research objectives
• They guide the research process by addressing
the variables of the study
• They are mainly used in qualitative research/
studies
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68. Significance of the study
• This section outlines the significance or
importance of the issue at hand. It provides:
 The rationale, timeliness and/or relevance of the
study
 Who are to benefit and how they are going to be
benefited
 Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge
 Possible implications
Question: How does Significance of the study differ
from justification of the study?
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69. Limitations of the study
• This section indicates challenges anticipated or
faced by the researcher. This includes time and
financial limitations that influenced the scope of
the study, data inaccessibility, and unanticipated
occurrences.
• The researcher should make an attempt to state
how the challenges were overcome.
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70. A detailed blueprint specifying how the research will be carried out
Description / location of the study area.
Selection of company / enterprise.
Data source.
Selection of quantitative parameters.
Selection of qualitative parameters.
Selection of respondents.
Data collection instrument.
Respondents contact method.
Data analytical tool.
Scope of the study.
Duration of the study.

71. 71
We shall Discuss Research
Design and Methodology as a
separate topic later