The document discusses batteries, including their history, types, and environmental impact. It provides information on different types of batteries such as primary batteries that cannot be recharged and secondary batteries that can be recharged. Some key battery types discussed include lithium-ion batteries commonly used in electronics, lead-acid batteries used in vehicles, and nickel-cadmium batteries which are prone to memory effects. The document also notes that while batteries provide portable power, discarded batteries release chemicals that harm the environment.

1. Nutan Maharashtra Vidya Prasarak
Mandal’s
NUTAN MAHARASHTRA INSTITUTE OF
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical
Engineering

2. Naman Dilip Nandurkar
Mayur Dnyaneshwar Lokhande
Prajwal Chandrshekhar Kamble
By :
Under Guidance Of : Prof. Arti Bindu

3. Content
• Introduction & How It Works
• History
• Interesting Facts
• Different Types Of Batteries
• Selecting the right battery for your application
• Application
• Effect On Envorment
• Future Of Batteries

4. A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections for powering electrical devices such
as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric cars.When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and
its negative terminal is the anode.[2] The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an external
electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-
energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy.

5. A battery is a collection of one or more cells that go under chemical reactions to create the flow of electrons within a circuit. There is lot of
research and advancement going on in battery technology, and as a result, breakthrough technologies are being experienced and used around
the world currently. Batteries came into play due to the need to store generated electrical energy. As much as a good amount of energy was
being generated, it was important to store the energy so it can be used when generation is down or when there is a need to power standalone
devices which cannot be kept tethered to the supply from the mains. Here it should be noted that only DC can be stored in the batteries, AC
current can’t be stored.
Battery cells are usually made up of three main components;
• The Anode (Negative Electrode)
• The Cathode (Positive Electrode)
• The electrolytes
The anode is a negative electrode that produces electrons to the external circuit to which the battery is connected. When batteries are
connected, an electron build-up is initiated at the anode which causes a potential difference between the two electrodes. The electrons
naturally then try to redistribute themselves, this is prevented by the electrolyte, so when an electrical circuit is connected, it provides a
clear path for the electrons to move from the anode to the cathode thereby powering the circuit to which it is connected. By changing
the arrangement and material used to build the Anode, Cathode and Electrolyte we can achieve many different types of battery chemistries
enabling us to design different types of battery cells. In this article lets understand the different types of batteries and their uses, so
let's get started.

6. The usage of "battery" to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1748 described multiple Leyden jars by analogy to
a battery of cannon (Benjamin Franklin borrowed the term "battery" from the military, which refers to weapons functioning together).
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800. This was a stack of copper and zinc
plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable length of time. Volta did not understand that the
voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy, and that the associated corrosion effects at the
electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.
Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current
for a sustained period. The Daniell cell, invented in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first practical source of electricity, becoming
an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption as a power source for electrical telegraph networks. It consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper
sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode.
These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components,
which made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances. Near the end of the
nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.

7. The Memory Effect
This is an effect that nickel-cadmium (NiCad) rechargeable batteries suffer from. If a NiCad battery is recharged before being
discharged fully, it ‘forgets’ that it is able to discharge any more energy.
For example, pretend a battery is capable of storing 100 units of energy. You use 40 units, then charge the battery up again to 100
units. In your mind, the battery contains 100 units again, but the memory effect means the battery essentially can only release up
to 40 units of energy.

8. The First Batteries
The first battery was created by Alessandro Volta in 1798. The first rechargeable battery has been around since 1859, when French
physicist Gaston Plante invented the lead acid cell. The lead acid cell is still used in cars today.
However, evidence of batteries dates back to over 2000 years ago. In 1938, Wilhelm Konig discovered in Iraq a 5 inch pottery jar
containing a copper cylinder encased in an iron rod. This is believed to be an ancient form of battery.

9. Rechargeable Batteries
Batteries work due to a chemical reaction inside the battery that causes electrons to flow from the negative to positive terminal of
the battery. When all of the chemicals inside the battery have reacted, the battery is spent. When you recharge a battery, you’re
essentially reversing the chemical reaction using electrical energy.

10. Types of Batteries
Batteries generally can be classified into different categories and types, ranging from chemical composition, size, form factor and
use cases, but under all of these are two major battery types;
1.Primary Batteries
2.Secondary Batteries

11. Primary batteries are batteries that cannot be recharged once depleted. Primary batteries are made of electrochemical cells
whose electrochemical reaction cannot be reversed.
Primary batteries exist in different forms ranging from coin cells to AA batteries. They are commonly used in standalone
applications where charging is impractical or impossible. A good example of which is in military grade devices and battery powered
equipment. It will be impractical to use rechargeable batteries as recharging a battery will be the last thing in the mind of the
soldiers. Primary batteries always have high specific energy and the systems in which they are used are always designed to consume
low amount of power to enable the battery last as long as possible.
Some other examples of devices using primary batteries include; Pace makers, Animal trackers, Wrist watches, remote controls
and children toys to mention a few.
The most popular type of primary batteries are alkaline batteries. They have a high specific energy and are environmentally
friendly, cost-effective and do not leak even when fully discharged. They can be stored for several years, have a good safety record
and can be carried on an aircraft without being subject to UN Transport and other regulations. The only downside to alkaline
batteries is the low load current, which limits its use to devices with low current requirements like remote controls, flashlights and
portable entertainment devices.

12. Secondary batteries are batteries with electrochemical cells whose chemical reactions can be reversed by applying a certain voltage to the battery in the reversed
direction. Also referred to as rechargeable batteries, secondary cells unlike primary cells can be recharged after the energy on the battery has been used up.
They are typically used in high drain applications and other scenarios where it will be either too expensive or impracticable to use single charge batteries. Small
capacity secondary batteries are used to power portable electronic devices like mobile phones, and other gadgets and appliances while heavy-duty batteries are used
in powering diverse electric vehicles and other high drain applications like load levelling in electricity generation. They are also used as standalone power sources
alongside Inverters to supply electricity. Although the initial cost of acquiring rechargeable batteries is always a whole lot higher than that of primary batteries but
they are the most cost-effective over the long-term.
Secondary batteries can be further classified into several other types based on their chemistry. This is very important because the chemistry determines some of the
attributes of the battery including its specific energy, cycle life, shelf life, and price to mention a few.
The following are the different types of rechargeable batteries that are commonly used.
• Lithium-ion(Li-ion)
• Nickel Cadmium(Ni-Cd)
• Nickel-Metal Hydride(Ni-MH)
• Lead-Acid

13. The nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd battery or NiCad battery) is a type of rechargeable battery which is
developed using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. Ni-Cd batteries excel at
maintaining voltage and holding charge when not in use. However, NI-Cd batteries easily fall a victim of
the dreaded “memory” effect when a partially charged battery is recharged, lowering the future capacity
of the battery.
Nickel – Cadmium battery
In comparison with other types of rechargeable cells, Ni-Cd batteries offer good life cycle and performance
at low temperatures with a fair capacity but their most significant advantage will be their ability to deliver
their full rated capacity at high discharge rates. They are available in different sizes including the sizes
used for alkaline batteries, AAA to D. Ni-Cd cells are used individual or assembled in packs of two or more
cells. The small packs are used in portable devices, electronics and toys while the bigger ones find
application in aircraft starting batteries, Electric vehicles and standby power supply.
Some of the properties of Nickel-Cadmium batteries are listed below.
• Specific Energy: 40-60W-h/kg
• Energy Density: 50-150 W-h/L
• Specific Power: 150W/kg
• Charge/discharge efficiency: 70-90%
• Self-discharge rate: 10%/month
• Cycle durability/life: 2000cycles

14. Nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH) is another type of chemical configuration used for rechargeable
batteries. The chemical reaction at the positive electrode of batteries is similar to that of
the nickel–cadmium cell (NiCd), with both battery type using the same nickel oxide
hydroxide (NiOOH). However, the negative electrodes in Nickel-Metal Hydride use a hydrogen-
absorbing alloy instead of cadmium which is used in NiCd batteries
.Ni-MH Battery
NiMH batteries find application in high drain devices because of their high capacity and energy
density. A NiMH battery can possess two to three times the capacity of a NiCd battery of the same
size, and its energy density can approach that of a lithium-ion battery. Unlike the NiCd chemistry,
batteries based on the NiMH chemistry are not susceptible to the “memory” effect that NiCads
experience.
Below are some of the properties of batteries based on the Nickel-metal hydride chemistry;
• Specific Energy: 60-120h/kg
• Energy Density: 140-300 Wh/L
• Specific Power: 250-1000 W/kg
• Charge/discharge efficiency: 66% - 92%
• Self-discharge rate: 1.3-2.9%/month at 20oC
• Cycle Durability/life: 180 -2000

15. Lithium-ion batteries are one of the most popular types of rechargeable batteries. There are many different types of Lithium batteries, but
among all the lithium-ion batteries are the most commonly used. You can find these lithium batteries being used in different forms popularly
among electric vehicles and other portable gadgets. If you are curious to know more about batteries used in Electric vehicles, you can check
out this article on Electric Vehicle Batteries. They are found in different portable appliances including mobile phones, smart devices and
several other battery appliances used at home. They also find applications in aerospace and military applications due to their lightweight
nature.
Lithium-Ion Battery
Lithium-ion batteries are a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions from the negative electrode migrate to the positive electrode
during discharge and migrate back to the negative electrode when the battery is being charged. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated
lithium compound as one electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in non-rechargeable lithium batteries.
Lithium-ion batteries generally possess high energy density, little or no memory effect and low self-discharge compared to other battery
types. Their chemistry alongside performance and cost vary across different use cases, for example, Li-ion batteries used in handheld
electronic devices are usually based on lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) which provides high energy density and low safety risks when damaged
while Li-ion batteries based on Lithium iron phosphate which offer a lower energy density are safer due to a reduced likelihood of
unfortunate events happening are widely used in powering electric tools and medical equipment. Lithium-ion batteries offer the best
performance to weight ratio with the lithium sulphur battery offering the highest ratio.
Some of the attributes of lithium-ion batteries are listed below;
• Specific Energy: 100: 265W-h/kg
• Energy Density: 250: 693 W-h/L
• Specific Power: 250: 340 W/kg
• Charge/discharge percentage: 80-90%
• Cycle Durability: 400: 1200 cycles
• Nominal cell voltage: NMC 3.6/3.85V

16. Lead-acid batteries are a low-cost reliable power workhorse used in heavy-duty applications. They
are usually very large and because of their weight, they’re always used in non-portable
applications such as solar-panel energy storage, vehicle ignition and lights, backup power and load
levelling in power generation/distribution. The lead-acid is the oldest type of rechargeable battery
and still very relevant and important into today’s world. Lead-acid batteries have very low energy
to volume and energy to weight ratios but it has a relatively large power to weight ratio and as a
result, can supply huge surge currents when needed. These attributes alongside its low cost make
these batteries attractive for use in several high current applications like powering automobile
starter motors and for storage in backup power supplies. You can also check out the article on Lead
Acid Battery working if you want to know more about the different types of Lead-acid batteries, its
construction and applications.

17. Lead-acid batteries are a low-cost reliable power workhorse used in heavy-duty applications. They
are usually very large and because of their weight, they’re always used in non-portable
applications such as solar-panel energy storage, vehicle ignition and lights, backup power and load
levelling in power generation/distribution. The lead-acid is the oldest type of rechargeable battery
and still very relevant and important into today’s world. Lead-acid batteries have very low energy
to volume and energy to weight ratios but it has a relatively large power to weight ratio and as a
result, can supply huge surge currents when needed. These attributes alongside its low cost make
these batteries attractive for use in several high current applications like powering automobile
starter motors and for storage in backup power supplies. You can also check out the article on Lead
Acid Battery working if you want to know more about the different types of Lead-acid batteries, its
construction and applications.

18. One of the main problems hindering technology revolutions like IoT is power, battery life affects the
successful deployment of devices that require long battery life and even though several power
management techniques are being adopted to make the battery last longer, a compatible battery must
still be selected to achieve the desired outcome.
Below are some factors to consider when selecting the right type of battery for your project.
1. Energy Density: The energy density is the total amount of energy that can be stored per unit mass or
volume. This determines how long your device stays on before it needs a recharge.
2. Power Density: Maximum rate of energy discharge per unit mass or volume. Low power: laptop, i-
pod. High power: power tools.
3. Safety: It is important to consider the temperature at which the device you are building will work. At
high temperatures, certain battery components will breakdown and can undergo exothermic reactions.
High temperatures generally reduces the performance of most batteries.
4. Life cycle durability: The stability of energy density and power density of a battery with repeated
cycling (charging and discharging) is needed for the long battery life required by most applications.
5. Cost: Cost is an important part of any engineering decisions you will be making. It is important that
the cost of your battery choice is commensurate with its performance and will not increase the overall
cost of the project abnormally.

21. Why Batteries are Harmful to the Environment
A tiny AAA battery may not be able to convince you that it’s detrimental to the environment. But once you
know how many of these things are being produced every year – and how many end up in landfills – you’ll
definitely change your mind.
Electronic waste or e-waste refers to the waste caused by discarding electronic devices, especially
consumer electronics. In the UK for example, only 15% of mobile phones were recycled. A major
component of these mobile phones is batteries.
There are different kinds of batteries, and they’re made using a variety of materials. What makes
batteries dangerous to the environment are the chemicals used to make them.
Apart from mining these resources – which has a detrimental effect on Nature – a battery contains one or
more of the following metals: cadmium, lead, zinc, manganese, nickel, silver, mercury, and lithium, as
well as acids.
These chemicals are extremely toxic – to us and the environment.

22. Air Pollution: Batteries undergo a photochemical reaction as they decompose in landfills. This causes
emissions of greenhouse gases. The greenhouse effect results in global warming / climate change.
Water Pollution: The harmful chemicals found in batteries can also find their way into the local water
supply, killing plants and animals which negatively affect the ecosystems of streams, lakes, and
rivers. Ultimately, the health of people who drink contaminated water is also at risk. The same can be
said when it comes to eating fish found in polluted waters.
Soil Pollution: I already mentioned that most batteries end up in landfills instead of being recycled or
disposed of properly. The danger lies in the fact that these batteries contain toxic chemicals that are
absorbed by the soil. Once they leak into the surrounding areas, that’s where the deleterious effects take
place.

23. Why Batteries are Harmful to Humans
Humans suffer because of these chemicals:
Lead: Inorganic lead dust is the most significant health hazard when it comes to batteries. Lead can be
absorbed into the body through inhalation and ingestion, both of which are equally dangerous.
People can become exposed to lead through occupational and environmental sources. For example,
people working in the manufacture of batteries are prone to lead dust inhalation and ingestion. The areas
surrounding a landfill where batteries are thrown are also sources of lead.
Children and foetuses are most vulnerable since their bodies are still developing. High levels of lead
exposure can affect a child’s growth, cause brain damage, impair hearing, harm kidneys, and induce
behavioural problems.
Adults are also affected negatively by lead. Exposure can cause memory loss and decrease the ability to
concentrate; it can even harm the reproductive system.
Sulfuric acid: Found in lead-acid batteries (commonly used in cars), sulfuric acid is highly corrosive. It
can cause permanent blindness if it comes into contact with your eyes. Ingestion of this acid can fatally
damage internal organs. The good news is that the presence of sulfuric acid in the environment doesn’t
always lead to exposure. Direct contact with it is what you should avoid.
Because of the hazards they possess, it’s important to know how to properly dispose of lead-acid batteries
– here’s a great resource. Don’t risk contamination – dispose of them properly.
Cadmium: This is used in nickel-cadmium batteries and is considered to be even more harmful than lead
when ingested. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified cadmium as a
carcinogen to humans.

24. It can be absorbed through the skin by touching a battery that has split open and leaked. When these
batteries end up in landfills, they can contaminate the soil and the surrounding areas. Eating crops that
were grown from cadmium-contaminated soil can damage or destroy the kidneys.
Reducing Battery Usage
Unfortunately, batteries will continue to be a necessity until we’re able to find another means to
store energy. The least that we can do for the time being is try to avoid battery-powered items
whenever possible.
Here are a few suggestions of how to reduce battery usage :
• Use mains electricity as a power source if possible, especially if it’s generated by renewable energy.
• Opt for renewable energy sources like a wind-up radio or torch, dynamo bicycle lights, or a solar-
powered calculator.
• Consider non-battery alternatives. For example, when buying toys for children, choose non-
battery playthings.
It is going to be hard for sure considering the kind of society we now live in. We just have to accept
the fact that we need batteries in our everyday lives. There’s no getting away from them for the time
being.
Other than that, there are two things more that you can do to reduce your environmental footprint
when it comes to batteries.
Use Rechargeables : The truth is, even rechargeable batteries emit harmful chemicals when disposed
of, just like their disposable counterparts. However, most of them can be charged up to 1000 times
when appropriately used. That means that you won’t be throwing as many of them away compared to
using single-use ones.
Aside from contributing to the overall wellness of the environment, you also save money. While the
initial cost of buying rechargeable batteries is more compared to a standard pack of alkaline
batteries, you’ll save money with them in the long run.

25. Batteries have been around for hundreds of years, and they’re going to be with us for some time to come. The many and varied
applications for batteries has meant numerous permutations of the electrochemical cell over the years—different metals and other
materials have been used for electrodes, different substances have been used for electrolytes, and there have been different ways
of putting it all together. But what does the future hold?

26. A paper battery is a flexible, ultra-thin energy storage and production device formed by
combining carbon nanotube s with a conventional sheet of cellulose-based paper. A
paper battery acts as both a high-energy battery and supercapacitor , combining two
components that are separate in traditional electronics .
This combination allows the battery to provide both long-term, steady power
production and bursts of energy. Non-toxic, flexible paper batteries have the potential
to power the next generation of electronics, medical devices and hybrid vehicles,
allowing for radical new designs and medical technologies.
Paper batteries may be folded, cut or otherwise shaped for different applications
without any loss of integrity or efficiency . Cutting one in half halves its energy
production. Stacking them multiplies power output. Early prototypes of the device are
able to produce 2.5 volt s of electricity from a sample the size of a postage stamp

27. They have produced a sample slightly larger than a postage stamp that can store enough energy to illuminate a small light bulb. But
the ambition is to produce reams of paper that could one day power a car.
Professor Robert Linhardt, of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, said the paper battery was a glimpse into the future of power
storage. The team behind the versatile paper, which stores energy like a conventional battery, says it can also double as a capacitor
capable of releasing sudden energy bursts for high-power applications.

28. While a conventional battery contains a number of separate components, the paper battery integrates all of the battery
components in a single structure, making it more energy efficient.
Integrated devices
The research appears in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).
"Think of all the disadvantages of an old TV set with tubes," said Professor Linhardt, from the New York-based institute, who co-
authored a report into the technology.
"The warm up time, power loss, component malfunction; you don't get those problems with integrated devices. When you transfer
power from one component to another you lose energy. But you lose less energy in an integrated device." The battery contains
carbon nanotubes, each about one millionth of a centimetre thick, which act as an electrode. The nanotubes are embedded in a
sheet of paper soaked in ionic liquid electrolytes, which conduct the electricity. The flexible battery can function even if it is rolled
up, folded or cut. Although the power output is currently modest, Professor Linhardt said that increasing the output should be easy.