2. Dynamic System
3
Output of the system depends on the current input as well as
previous inputs/outputs
The system has internal memory
A dynamic system can be represented mathematically using
differential equations
The system order usually corresponds to the number of
independent energy storage elements in the system.
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3. Transfer Function Representation
4
LTI systems have the extremely important property that if the
input to the system is sinusoidal, then the output will also be
sinusoidal at the same frequency but in general with different
magnitude and phase.
These magnitude and phase differences as a function of
frequency are known as the frequency response of the
system.
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4. Transfer Function Representation
5
Using the Laplace transform, it is possible to convert a
system's time-domain representation into a frequency-domain
output/input representation, known as the transfer function.
In so doing, it also transforms the governing differential
equation into an algebraic equation which is often easier to
analyze.
Frequency-domain methods are most often used for analyzing
LTI single-input/single-output (SISO)systems, e.g. those
governed by a constant coefficient differential equation
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5. Transfer Function Representation
6
The Laplace transform of a time domain function
0
Where
s j complex frequency variable
st
F(s) f (t)e dt
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6. Transfer Function Representation
7
A transfer function is the Laplace transform of thesystem’s
differential equation with omitting initial conditions
Hence, it is a rational function of the variable ‘s’
01nX (s) a sn
a s
Y(s) b sm
b
G(s) n1
n1
m m1 1 0
a s a
sm1
b s b
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7. Transfer Function Representation
8
If the coefficients ai andbi are constants, the system
is linear time invariant (LTI)
The highest order n of the denominator is referred to
as the order of the system.
For a physically realizable system, m ≤ n. (Causal
system)
Y(s)
nX (s) a sn
a s
b sm
b
G(s) n1
n1 1 0
m m1 1 0
a s a
sm1
b s b
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8. MATLAB Representations of Transfer Functions
9
num=[b1,b2,. . .,bm,bm+1];
den=[1,a1,a2,. . .,an−1, an];
G=tf(num,den)
Example
s4
2s3
3s2
4s 5
s 5
G(s)
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9. Transfer Function Representation
10
It is useful to factor the numerator and denominator of the
transfer function into the so called zero-pole-gain form
The poles are the values of s for which a(s)=0, and
The zeros are the values of s for which b(s)=0.
G(s)
Y(s)
b(s)
X (s) a(s)
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10. Zero-Pole-Gain Representation In MATLAB
11
z=-[z1; z2; · · · ; zm];
p=-[p1; p2; · · · ; pn];
G=zpk(z,p,K)
Example
s 3
(s 2)(s 4)(s 5)
pzmap
Plots the pole-zero map of the LTI model sys
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12. Time Response
13
The time response of a linear dynamic system consists of the sum
of the transient response (Natural response) which depends on
the initial conditions and the steady-state response (Forced
response ) which depends on the system input.
These correspond to the free (homogeneous or zero input) and
the forced (inhomogeneous or non-zero input) solutions of the
governing differential equations respectively.
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14. Frequency Response
15
LTI systems have the extremely important property that if the
input to the system is sinusoidal, then the steady-state output
will also be sinusoidal at the same frequency but in general
with different magnitude and phase.
These magnitude and phase differences as a function of
frequency comprise the frequency response of the system.
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15. Frequency Response Representation
16
The frequency response of a system can be found from the transfer
function in the following way:
create a vector of frequencies (varying between zero or "DC" to infinity) and
compute the value of the plant transfer function at those frequencies.
If G(s) is the open-loop transfer function of a system and ω is the frequency
vector, we then plot G(j ω ) versus ω . Since G(j ω ) is a complex number,
we can plot
both its magnitude and phase (the Bode Plot) or
its position in the complex plane (the Nyquist Diagram).
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16. Stability: Bounded Input Bounded Output (BIBO)
17
A system is stable if the output remains bounded for allbounded
(finite) inputs.
Practically, this means that the system will not “blow up” while in
operation.
If all poles of the transfer function have negative real parts, then
the system is stable.
If any pole has a positive real part, then the system is unstable.
If any pair of poles is on the imaginary axis, then the system is
marginally stable and the system will oscillate.
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17. Effect of Pole Location
18
Consider the transfer function
The impulse response will be an
exponential function
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18. Effect of Pole Location
19
When σ > 0, the pole is located at s < 0,
The exponential expression y(t) decays.
Impulse response is stable.
When σ < 0, the pole is located at s > 0,
The exponential expression y(t) grows with time.
Impulse response is referred to as unstable.
if 0
Im(s)
if 0
Re(s)
if 0y(t)
if 0
t
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19. Effect of Pole Location: Example
20
Find the impulse response of H(s)
H (s)
s2
2s 1
2s 1
3s 2 (s 1)(s 2)
1
3
s 1 s 2
1
s 1
s 2
h(t) L1 1 3L1
h(t) (et
3e2t
)1(t) 0 1 2 3
Time (sec)
4
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
h(t)
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20. Effect of Pole Location: Example
21
syms s t;
H=(2*s+1)/(s^2+3*s+2);
h=ilaplace(H);
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21. Stability Criterion Vs. Pole Locations
Impulse Response22
Re(s)
Im(s)
y(t) y(t)
y(t)
t
t
t
y(t)
t
y(t)
t
y(t)
t
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22. Stability Assessment in Matlab
23
Poles of a given LTI model G can be obtained directly with pole(G)
Zeros of the system G can be obtained with the function zero(G)
Poles and zeros of G can be sketched with the function pzmap(G)
Example
Is the following plant BIBO stable?
s3
7s2
24s 24
Gp (s)
s4
10s3
35s2
50s 24
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23. System Order
24
The order of a dynamic system is the order of the highest
derivative of its governing differential equation.
Equivalently, it is the highest power of s in the denominator of
its transfer function.
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25. General Form of First Order Systems
differential equation transfer function
26
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26. DC Gain
27
The DC gain is the ratio of the magnitude of the steady-state
step response to the magnitude of the step input
DC gain is the value of the transfer function when s=0.
For first order systems equal to
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27. Time Constant
28
The time constant represents the time scale for which the dynamics
of the system are significant.
For first order systems, the time constant is the time it takes for the
system to reach 63% of the steady-state value for a step response
or to decrease to 37% of the initial value for an impulse response.
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28. Poles/Zeros of First Order Systems
29
There is a single real pole at s = -a
Therefore, the system is stable if a is positive and unstable if a is
negative
There are no zeros
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29. Step Response of First-Order Systems
30
a
s(s a)
C(s) R(s)G(s)
c(t) c (t) c (t) 1 eat
f n
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30. Step Response of First-Order Systems
Time Constant31
Time for the system output to
reach approximately 63% of its
final steady state value
indication of system response
speed
c(t) c (t) c (t) 1 eat
f n
eat
e1
0.37
t 1
a
1 0.37 0.63
a
t1
t1
a
x(t) 1 eat
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31. Step Response Example
32
a = 5;
num = a;
den = [1 a];
figure
step(num,den);
grid on
a
s a
G(s)
0 0.2 0.4 0.8 1 1.2
0
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Step Response
0.6
Time (sec)
Amplitude
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32. Step Response Example
33
k_dc = 5;
Tc = 10;
u = 2;
s = tf('s');
G = k_dc/(Tc*s+1)
step(u*G)
If you right click on the step response graph
and select Characteristics, you can choose
to have several system metrics overlaid on
the response: peak response, settling time,
rise time, and steady3/-1s5/t2a01t7e.
G(s)
kdc
s 1
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33. Settling Time
34
The settling time is the time
required for the system output to
fall within 2% percentage of the
steady state value for a step input
or equivalently to decrease to a
certain percentage of the initial
value for an impulse input.
For first order systems, settling
time is approximately 3.9 * time
constant
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34. Rise Time
35
The rise time is the time
required for the system output
to rise from 10% to 90% of the
final steady-state value.
Tr = 2.2 /a
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35. Example of First Order System
Thermometer
Response time = 10 - 20 sec Response time = 1 sec
36
Digital Thermometer Digital Infrared Ear Thermometer
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37. Second Order Systems
38
Second order systems are the simplest type of dynamic system
to exhibit oscillations
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38. General Form of Second Order Systems
differential equation transfer function
39
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39. DC Gain
40
The DC gain is the ratio of the magnitude of the steady-state
step response to the magnitude of the step input
DC gain is the value of the transfer function when s=0.
For second order systems equal to
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40. Damping Ratio
41
The damping ratio is a dimensionless quantity characterizing
the energy losses in the system due to such effects as viscous
friction or electrical resistance
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41. Natural Frequency
42
The natural frequency is the frequency (in rad/s) that the
system will oscillate at when there is no damping, ζ=0
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42. Steady-state Value y(∞)
43
The steady-state value of the system under the step response
is the output when t → ∞.
Using the final value theorem
The steady-state value of the system G can be evaluated using
the function
K=dcgain(G)
a0
s
y() lim sG(s)
1
s0
G(0)
b0
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43. Poles/Zeros of Second Order Systems
44
The second order transfer function has two poles at
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44. Under Damped System: ζ<1
45
If ζ<1 then the system is under
damped.
Both poles are complex valued
with negative real parts
therefore the system is stable but
oscillates while approaching the
steady-state value.
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46. Under Damped System Example
47
Plot the map of poles and zeros & the step response of the
second order system with the following characteristics
k_dc = 1; w_n = 10; zeta = 0.2;
s = tf('s');
G1 = k_dc*w_n^2/(s^2 + 2*zeta*w_n*s + w_n^2);
figure
pzmap(G1)
axis([-3 1 -15 15])
figure
step(G1)
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48. Under Damped System: Settling Time
49
The settling time is the time
required for the system output to
fall within 2% percentage of the
steady state value for a step input
or equivalently to decrease to a
certain percentage of the initial
value for an impulse input.
For a second order, underdamped
system, settling time is
approximately 3.9/(ζωn)
dn
44
Ts
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49. Under Damped System: Percent Overshoot
50
The percent overshoot is the
percent by which a system
exceeds its final steady-state
value.
For a second order under
damped system, the percent
overshoot is directly related to
the damping ratio by the
following equation
100%1 2
%OS e
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50. Under Damped System: Damping Ratio
51
A good damping ratio is
between 0.4 and 0.8.
Small values of (<0.4) yield
excessive overshoot.
Large values of (>0.8)
responds sluggishly
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51. 52
Step responses of second-order
underdamped systems as poles
move
a. with constant real part
b. with constant imaginary part
c. with constant damping ratio
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52. Over Damped System: ζ>1
53
If ζ>1 then the system is over damped
Both poles are real and negative
therefore the system is stable and does not oscillate
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53. Over Damped System Example
54
Plot the map of poles and zeros & the step response of the
second order system with the following characteristics
k_dc = 1; w_n = 10; zeta = 1.2;
s = tf('s');
G1 = k_dc*w_n^2/(s^2 + 2*zeta*w_n*s + w_n^2);
figure
pzmap(G1)
figure
step(G1)
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55. Critically Damped System: ζ=1
56
If ζ=1 then the system is critically damped
Both poles are real and have the same magnitude
Critically damped systems approach steady-state quickest without
oscillating.
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56. Critically Damped System Example
57
Plot the map of poles and zeros & the step response of the
second order system with the following characteristics
k_dc = 1;
w_n = 10;
zeta = 1;
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58. Undamped System: ζ=0
59
If ζ=0 then the system is undamped
In this case, the poles are purely imaginary
therefore the system is marginally stable and oscillates indefinitely.
sp jn
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59. Undamped System Example
60
Plot the map of poles and zeros & the step response of the
second order system with the following characteristics
k_dc = 1;
w_n = 10;
zeta = 0;
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63. References
64
Benjamin C. Kuo and Farid Golnaraghi, “Automatic Control
Systems”, 8th edition, John Wiley & Sons,Inc.
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64. References
65
Dingyü Xue, YangQuan Chen and YangQuan Chen, „Linear
Feedback Control, Analysis and Design with MATLAB“, 1st
edition, SIAM (Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics),
Philadelphia
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65. Quiz
66
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• M1= 1/4 bus body mass 2500 kg
• M2= suspension mass 320 kg
• K1= spring constant of suspension system 80,000 N/m
• K2= spring constant of wheel and tire 500,000 N/m
• B1= damping constant of suspension system 350 N.s/m
• B2= damping constant of wheel and tire 15,020 N.s/m
•U= control force
Determine:
• Transfer function / Simulink models
• step response
66. Home Work #2
67
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Determine:
• select all parameters which give you suitable / accepted system behavior
• Simulink models
• step response