This document discusses participatory approaches to infrastructure development in rural areas of developing countries. It covers several topics: 1. Traditional development approaches like state-led, market-led, NGO-led, and community-led models and their characteristics. 2. Modern participatory approaches that emphasize cooperation between states/developers and communities. This includes concepts like benefit sharing. 3. Elements of effective participation, including different levels (e.g. local, elite, policymakers) and stages (e.g. planning, implementation). 4. Guidelines for ensuring participation is effective, such as demonstrating awareness as outsiders and promoting co-decision making.

1. Chapter 7
Participatory Approach in Infrastructure Development
(in rural setting in developing countries)
(3 hours)
Hari Krishna Shrestha
Nepal Engineering College
Changunarayan, Bhaktapur

2. 7.1 Practices of (Rural) Infrastructure
Development in Nepal
• National Strategy for Rural Infrastructure Development, 1997
• Local Self-Governance Act (LSGA) 1999,
• Tenth Five Year Plan 2002-2007,
• Local Body Fiscal Commission Report 2001,
• Joint HMGN-Donor Review of Decentralization in Nepal 2001,
• National Framework Document for Decentralized Governance
and Capacity Building, 2002 and
• Decentralization Monitoring and Implementation Committee
have all recommended to devolve the rural infrastructure to
local bodies

3. Rural Infrastructure Development Policies of Nepal

4. Infrastructure Development
• Need for (rural/local) infrastructure development
• Practices of infrastructure development in Nepal
– Gaun Pharka Rastriya Abhiyan
– Rs. 3 lakh per VDC ? Rs. 5 lakh ? Rs. 25 lakh
– Local Self Governance Act 2055
– DoLIDAR, Hulaki Road
– Microhydro plants
– Community water supply

5. 7.2 Traditional Development Approaches
• State led (prescriptive) development approach:
State led development is where the Government plans and
leads the development activities.
• Market led (and product led) development
approach
– Market-led development tries to meet the need within a market. The
need is already there, and the product is created specifically to meet
that need. Product-led development starts with the product and tries to
create a need for it. An example might be the instant noodles in Nepal.
• NGO led development approach:direct access to
people, less red-tape, decentralized development activities
• Community led (Participatory) development
approach (civil society led):planned and led by
community

6. Characteristics of Traditional Development Approaches
State Led
• Centralized planning
• Less participation of stake holders
• Systematic, organized
• Less overlap
• Bureaucratic
• Deterministic
• Prescriptive
• Stable/long term planning and long term
goal
• Less flexible
• In coordination with international changes
• Supply driven
Market Led
• Trickle Down
• Market as the ultimate decision maker
• Survival of the fittest
• Demand driven; unstable, volatile
• supply can create demand, vulnerable to
manipulation
NGO Led
• Comparatively more participatory
• Demand driven
• Project based development
• May overlap if coordination is
weak
Community Led (Participatory)
• Highly participatory
• Decision by stakeholders
• Unpredictable
• More affected by local politics
• Demand driven
Which model is best suited for a
developing country? Why?
Potential Thesis Topic: Comparative
analysis of community led
development projects in Nepal

7. 7.3 Modern Approach to Participatory
Infrastructure Development
• State - Users Cooperation
FMIS
Community Forestry
People’s Embankment
Users’ Committee involvement in planning water supply
projects, forest management, irrigation
• Developers – community cooperation
Hydropower
Land pooling
Benefit Sharing Mechanisms
Concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR)

8. The principle of participation – the active involvement and
empowerment of stakeholders, in all the stages of
development /construction project
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), 1970s: extracting information
Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRA), 1980s: follow peoples’ interests
and concerns
Participatory Learning and Action (PLA), early 1990s
Participatory and Integrated Development, 1990s: offering facilitation
support to locals (such as villages, communities, interest groups,
associations etc.) on a demand responsive basis, and assisting them in
getting their interests represented
http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/ad424e/ad424e03.htm
7.4 Participative Approach vs. Central Planning Approach

9. 7.5 Benefits of participatory approach
in infrastructure development
• understanding all the aspects of construction project
• Ability/ease to predict potential pit falls
• Avoids potential conflict after the initiation of the
project
• Optimum utilization of local resources
• Optimum utilization of local skills/human resources
• Ensures successful implementation of the project
• Reduce O&M cost
• Develop ownership
• Ensure sustainability

10. 7.6 Levels of participation
(bottom-up)
• Local level (grass root level)
• Local elite
• Local politicians/leaders/people of influence
• Technicians (engineers, geologist, hydrologists,
environmentalists, safety, …)
• Sociologists/anthropologists
• Public relation/ business officer
• Regulators/line agency officer
• Policy makers

11. 7.7 Stages of participation
• Conceptual
• Identification/ Formulation
• Planning
• Design
• Construction/Implementation
• Operation/maintenance
What are the roles of local stakeholders
in each stage of project development?

12. 7.8 Elements of Participative Approach
Various participatory or bottom-up approaches have been
developed and applied worldwide in response to the
perception that top-down and supply-driven approaches
are the cause of the problems. In rural development
projects financed by ADB, the new approaches include
(i) beneficiary consultation and participatory planning;
(ii) community development support;
(iii) engagement of nongovernment organizations (NGOs);
(iv) local government involvement; and
(v) private sector participation
Source: ADB, 2004, Effectiveness of Participatory Approaches
https://www.oecd.org/derec/adb/35183500.pdf

13. Participatory Approach
• sharing of knowledge and experience
• recognizing and encompassing different
perspectives
• working in teams on practical tasks
• the use of visualization and analytical tools,
imagination and drama
• an open-ended creative learning process
• the development of shared understanding and
jointly owned plans or other products
• the capacity for reflection and self-assessment

14. Success of participatory approach depends on:
• Thorough understanding of ground realities
• Awareness level of local people
• Ability of project developer to generate willingness to
participate
• Positive role of political leaders
• Level of social harmony
• Social structure: gender balance, existing conflict, caste,
religious harmony
• Time available for initiation, development, implementation
and post completion aspects of the project
• Type of project: level of technical knowhow
expected/needed from the local stakeholders for effective
participation
• Objective of the project: social uplift, national security,
attracting FDI, rapid economic development, sustainable
development

15. 7.9 Ways to Ensure Effective Participation
As an outside researcher, there are several guidelines that may be
followed to increase the effectiveness of a participatory development
process. Researchers should (Botes and van Rensburg, 2000: 53-54):
1. “Demonstrate an awareness of [your] status as outsiders to the
beneficiary community and the potential impact of [your]
involvement;
2. Respect the community’s indigenous contribution as manifested in
their knowledge, skills and potential;
3. Become good facilitators and catalysts of development that assist
and stimulate community-based initiatives and realize their own
ideals;
4. Promote co-decision-making in defining needs, goal-setting and
formulating policies and plans in the implement of these decisions;
5. Communicate both programme/project successes and failure as
sometimes failures can be more informative;

16. Ways to Ensure Effective Participation
6. Believe in the spirit in solidarity, conformity, compassion, respect, human
dignity and collective unity;
7. Listen to community members, especially the more vulnerable, less vocal
and marginalized groups;
8. Guard against the domination of some interest groups. Involve a cross-
section of interest groups to collaborate as partners in jointly defining
development needs and goals, and designing appropriate processes to
reach these goals;
9. Acknowledge that process-related soft issues are as important as product
related hard issues;
10. Aim at releasing the energy within a community without exploiting or
exhausting them; and
11. Empower communities to share equitably in the fruits of development
through active processes whereby beneficiaries influence the direction of
development initiatives rather than merely receive a share of benefits in a
passive manner.”
Source: Anantha Kumar Duraiappah, Pumulo Roddy and Jo-Ellen Parry, 2005, Have Participatory Approaches
Increased Capabilities?, International Institute for Sustainable Development, http://www.iisd.org

17. Self Test
• Which development model is best suited for a
developing country? Why?
• What are the basic conditions for the success of a
participatory approach?
• What are the ways to ensure effective
participation in infrastructure development
projects in a developing countries?
• Do all stakeholders equally participate in
participate approach? Discuss in terms of levels
and stages of participation.
• Discuss the basic assumptions in the concept that
a participative approach results in lower O&M
cost.

18. 1. VALUE THE PARTNERSHIP: Believe that the community has a role in child
protection and that child welfare agencies must share responsibility and work
with neighborhood partners to strengthen birth parents and enhance their
ability to keep their children safe and nurtured.
2. SHARE RESPONSIBILITIES: Rely on established community partners to recruit
representatives, and jointly plan effective orientation and training for
representatives to ensure they have adequate knowledge and confidence to be
full participants.
3. ASSUME GOOD INTENTIONS: Trust that representatives are invested in keeping
the child’s best interest and particularly his/her safety first and foremost, while
supporting the family. Maintain an inclusive attitude and team mentality.
Support the agency’s commitment to shared decision-making.
4. DEMONSTRATE APPRECIATION: Develop a working relationship based upon
respect, acceptance and recognition of the value community partners add to
TDM. Ensure agency staff are well-trained in cultural issues and that meetings
reflect sensitivity to differences.
5. PROVIDE INFORMATION: Ensure parents understand community partner’s role
and the potential benefit for them so parents can make an informed decision
regarding the community member’s participation.
Ten ways to ensure effective community participation
(case of child welfare)

19. 6. BE CREATIVE: Search for ways the birth parents’ community can support the
family and child. Embrace the uniqueness and differences of communities. Ensure
team examination of non-traditional, as well as, traditional services to decide if
the services can promote safety, offer support and/or reduce risks.
7. AFFIRM THE COMMUNITY’S STRENGTHS: Empower the community representative
to support birth parents and promote understanding of the family’s community
during the TDM, while keeping the child’s best interest central in TDM process
and decision.
8. RESPECT SUGGESTIONS: Demonstrate appreciation for viewpoint, skills,
knowledge and resources of partners. Value input and contributions. Thank
community representatives for their participation, insights, ideas and opinions.
9. TALK OFTEN: Maintain open communication with the community group or
collaborative which the representative represents; request and offer suggestions,
guidance and feedback.
10. CONFIRM BENEFITS: Share quarterly data reports with community
representatives and collaboratives. Provide information about how community
members’ participation is impacting on lives of families and children from their
community. Recognize community reps; celebrate progress publicly!
Ten ways to ensure effective community participation
http://www.f2f.ca.gov/res/10TipsForEnsuringEffective.pdf