1. COMPUTER GRAPHICS
by
Amol S. Gaikwad
Lecturer
Government Polytechnic Gadchiroli
Maharashtra

2. UNIT-2
RASTER SCAN GRAPHICS,
LINE, CIRCLE & POLYGON
ALGORITHMS

3. Welcome! Are you
excited for a fun
learning session?
Hi

4. Unit Outcomes
Write a program to draw a line using the given algorithm
Use the given algorithm to rasterize the given line
Apply the given algorithm to generate the circle
Draw the polygon using given algorithm
Apply character generation method to display the given character

5. Basic Concepts in Line Drawing
In computer line is drawn by calculating intermediate points on the line
path between two end points of line
Output device then fills the position between two end points
Analog devices like random scan display draws straight line between two
end points by applying horizontal and vertical deflection voltages in 'x' and
'y' direction
Digital devices draws line by plotting different points between end points
Coordinates of points on the line are calculated using equation of line

6. Basic Concepts in Line Drawing
End point of line
( x1, y1)
( x2, y2 )
discrete (distinct)
points of line
End point of line

7. Basic Concepts of Line Drawing Agorithms
Cartesian slope - intercept equation for straigh line is
y = m*x + b ................................... ( 1 )
where m = slope of line, b = y intercept of line
if (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are end points of line then slope of line is calculated as
m =
y2 - y1
x2 - x1
................( 2 )
and b = y1 - m*x1 ................( 3 )
Algorithms for drawing straight lines uses equation no. ( 1 ), ( 2 ), and ( 3 )

8. Basic Concepts of Line Drawing Agorithms
x interval x = x2 - x1 and y interval y = y2 - y1
where y = m* x ................( 4 )
Equation ( 4 ) and ( 5 ) decides deflection voltages in analog display devices
if |m|< 1 then x can be set proportional to small horizontal deflection voltage
and vertical deflection voltage is proportional to y
and x = y ................( 5 )
m
if |m|> 1 then y can be set proportional to small vertical deflection voltage and
horizontal deflection voltage is proportional to x
= this symbol is called as delta

9. if m = 1 and x = y then horizontal and vertical deflection voltages are
equal and smooth line is drawn between end points with slope m
Basic Concepts of Line Drawing Agorithms
Scan - conversion process of straight line :
In raster systems lines are plotted with pixels
Step size in horizontal and vertical direction depends on pixel seperation
So, we must sample line at distinct position and find the nearest pixel to line at the
sample position
This is called scan conversion process

10. Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) - Line Algorithm
DDA line algorithm is a scan conversion algorithm based on calculating values of x
and y
If slope of line |m| < 1 or |m| = 1 then we sample line at unit x interval ( x = 1 ) and
calculate each next value of y as below :
y = y + m ................( 6 )k+1 k
'm' can have value between 0 to 1 and values of y must be rounded to nearest
integer

11. Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) - Line Algorithm
If slope of line |m| > 1 then we reverse the role of x and y
x = x + 1/m ................( 7 )k+1 k
Equation ( 6 ) and ( 7 ) are useful if we process line from left endpoint to right end
point
We sample line at unit y intervals ( y = 1 ) and calculate at each next x values as :

12. Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) - Line Algorithm
If we process the line from right endpoint to left endpoint and the value of slope of
line |m| < 1 or |m| = 1 then we sample line at unit x interval ( x = -1 ) and calculate
each next values of y as below :
y = y - m ................( 8 )k+1 k
Similarly if |m| > 1 and line is processed from right endpoint to left endpoint then we
take y = -1 and each next x values are calculated as :
x = x - 1/m ................( 9 )k+1 k

13. Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) - Line Algorithm
Step 1 : Read the end points of line i.e (x1,y1) and (x2,y2)
Step 2 : Calculate x and y as follow -
x = x2 - x1
y = y2 - y1
Step 3: If abs( x) > abs( y) then
steps = x
else
steps = y
Step 4 : xIncrement = x / steps
yIncrement = y / steps

14. Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) - Line Algorithm
Step 5 : x = x1 + 0.5*sign( x)
y = y1 + 0.5*sign( y)
Step 6 : k = 0
while (k < steps)
{
setPixel ( ROUND(x), ROUND(y))
x = x + xIncrement
y = y + yIncrement
k = k + 1
}
Step 7 : End

15. Advantages of DDA Algorithm
Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) - Line Algorithm
It is a very simple algorithm
It is a faster method for calculating pixel positions
Disdvantages of DDA Algorithm
Accumulation of roundoff errors in successive adition floating-point increment
causes the calculated pixel position to drift away from actual line path
Rounding operations and floating point arithmetic in DDA algorithm are time
consuming

16. Consider the line from (0,0) to (4,6) , use simple DDA algorithm to rasterize this line
Solved Example - DDA Line Algorithm
Solution : Given points are (x1,y1) = (0,0) and (x2,y2) = (4,6)
therefor, x1=0, y1=0, and x2=4, y2=6
x = x2 - x1 y = y2 - y1
= 4 - 0 = 6 - 0
= 4 = 6
abs( x) = 4, abs( y) = 6
as abs( y) > abs( x) , steps = abs( y) = 6
initial values of x and y caculated as
x = x1 + 0.5*sign( x) = 0 + 0.5*(+1) = 0 + 0.5 = 0.5
y = y1 + 0.5*sign( y) = 0 + 0.5*(+1) = 0 + 0.5 = 0.5
therefore (x,y) = (0.5,0.5)

17. Solution : xinc = (x2 - x1)/steps, yinc = (y2 - y1)/steps
= (4 - 0 )/6 = (6 - 0)/6
= 4/6 = 1/1
= 0.667 = 1
starting point is (x,y) = (0.5,0.5)
therefore plot point (x,y) = (0,0)
Solved Example - DDA Line Algorithm
steps calculation of (x,y) point Plot
1
x = x + xinc = 0.5 + 0.667 = 1.167
y = y + yinc = 0.5 + 1 = 1.5
(x,y) = (1.167,1.5)
(1,2)
2 x = x + xinc = 1.167 + 0.667 = 1.834
y = y + yinc = 1 .5 + 1 = 2.5
(x,y) = (1.834,2.5)
(2,3)

18. Solution :
Solved Example - DDA Line Algorithm
steps calculation of (x,y) point Plot
3
x = x + xinc = 1.834 + 0.667 = 2.5
y = y + yinc = 2.5 + 1 = 3.5
(x,y) = (2.5,3.5)
(3,4)
4
x = x + xinc = 2.5 + 0.667 = 3.167
y = y + yinc = 3.5 + 1 = 4.5
(x,y) = (3.167,4.5)
(3,5)
5
x = x + xinc = 3.167 + 0.667 = 3.834
y = y + yinc = 4.5 + 1 = 5.5
(x,y) = (3.834,5.5)
(4,6)

19. Solution :
Solved Example - DDA Line Algorithm
steps calculation of (x,y) point Plot
6
x = x + xinc = 3.834 + 0.667 = 4.5
y = y + yinc = 5.5 + 1 =6.5
(x,y) = (4.5,6.5)
(5,7)

20. C Program of DDA Line Algorithm
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<graphics.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
int gd=DETECT,gm;
float x,y,x1,y1,x2,y2,deltax,deltay;
float xinc,yinc,steps;
int i = 1;
printf("n Enter the first coordinates x1 and y1 ");
scanf("%f%f",&x1,&y1);
printf("n Enter the second coordinates x2 and y2 ");
scanf("%f%f",&x2,&y2);
initgraph(&gd,&gm,"C:TURBOC3BGI");
deltax = abs(x2-x1);
deltay = abs(y2-y1);
if(deltax > deltay)
{ steps = deltax;
}
else
{ steps = deltay;
}
xinc = (x2-x1)/steps;
yinc = (y2-y1)/steps;
x =x1;
y= y1;
while(i < steps)
{ putpixel(x,y,RED);
x = x + xinc;
y = y + yinc;
i = i + 1;
}
getch();
closegraph();
}

21. Output of DDA Line Program

22. Bresenham's Line Algorithm
Bresenham line algorithm is a raster line generating algorithm , developed by
Bresenham
It uses only integer calculations that can be used to display display and other curves

23. Bresenham's Line Algorithm
Step 1 : Input the two line endpoints and store the left endpoint in ( x , y )
Step 2 : Load ( x , y ) into the frame buffer ; that is , plot the first point
0 0
0 0
Step 3: Calculate constants x, y, 2 y, and 2 y - 2 x and obtain the starting value for
decision parameter as
p = 2 y - x
0
Step 4: At each x along the line starting at k=0, perform the following test :
if p < 0, the next point to be plot is (x + 1, y ) and
i
k k k
p = p + 2 yk + 1 k

24. Bresenham's Line Algorithm
Step 4 : Otherwise, the next point to plot is ( x + 1 , y + 1) and
k
k
k + 1
k
p = p + 2 y - 2 x
Step 5 : Repeat step 4 x times
Step 5 : End

25. Solved Example - Bresenham Line Algorithm
Use Bresenham line algorithm to rasterize the line from (20,10) and (30,18)
Solution : The given points are (x1,y1) = (20,10) and (x2,y2) = (30,18)
therefore x1=20, y1=10 and x2=30, y2=18
x = x2 - x1 y = y2 - y1
= 30 - 20 = 18 - 10
= 10 = 8
the starting point is x = x1 and y = y1 , therefore (x,y) = (x1,y1) = (20,10)
steps = x = 10, therefore repeat 10 times and calculate 10 points
the starting value (initial value ) of pk is calculated as
pk = 2* y - x
= 2*8 - 10
= 6

26. Solution :
Solved Example - Bresenham Line Algorithm
steps calculation of (x,y) point Plot
1
As pk > 0, so
x = x+1 = 20+1 = 21
y = y+1 = 10+1 = 11
(x,y)=(21,11)
pk = pk+2* y-2* x
= 6+16-20
pk = 2
(21,11)
value of pk
6
2
As pk > 0, so
x = x+1 = 21+1 = 22
y = y+1 = 11+1 = 12
(x,y)=(22,12)
pk = pk+2* y-2* x
= 2+16-20
= -2
(22,12)
2

27. Solution :
Solved Example - Bresenham Line Algorithm
steps calculation of (x,y) point Plot
3
As pk < 0, so
x = x+1 = 22+1 = 23
y = y = 12
(x,y)=(23,12)
pk = pk+2* y
= -2+16
pk = 14
(23.12)
value of pk
-2
4
As pk > 0, so
x = x+1 = 23+1 = 24
y = y+1 = 12+1 =13
(x,y)=(24,13)
pk = pk+2* y-2* x
= 14+16-20
= 10
(24,13)
14

28. Solution :
Solved Example - Bresenham Line Algorithm
steps calculation of (x,y) point Plot
5
As pk > 0, so
x = x+1 = 24+1 = 25
y = y+1 = 13+1 =14
(x,y)=(25,14)
pk = pk+2* y-2* x
= 10+16-20
pk = 6
(25,14)
value of pk
10
6
As pk > 0, so
x = x+1 = 25+1 = 26
y = y+1 = 14+1 = 15
(x,y)=(26,15)
pk = pk+2* y-2* x
= 6+16-20
= 2
(26,15)
6

29. Solution :
Solved Example - Bresenham Line Algorithm
steps calculation of (x,y) point Plot
7
As pk > 0, so
x = x+1 = 26+1=27
y = y+1 = 15+1=16
(x,y)=(27,16)
pk = pk+2* y-2* x
= 2+16-20
pk = -2
(27,16)
value of pk
2
8
As pk < 0, so
x = x+1 = 27+1=28
y = y = 16
(x,y)=(28,16)
pk = pk+2* y
= -2+16
= 14
(28,16)
-2

30. Solution :
Solved Example - Bresenham Line Algorithm
steps calculation of (x,y) point Plot
9
As pk > 0, so
x = x+1 = 28+1=29
y = y+1 = 16+1=17
(x,y)=(29,17)
pk = pk+2* y-2* x
= 14+16-20
pk = 10
(29,17)
value of pk
14
10
As pk > 0, so
x = x+1 = 29+1=30
y = y+1 = 17+1=18
As we have completed 10 steps and
caculated 10 points we will stop here
(30,18)
10

31. C Program of Bresenham Line Algorithm
#include<conio.h>
#include<graphics.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
int gd = DETECT,gm;
int x,y,x1,y1,x2,y2,deltax,deltay,pk;
int i=0;
printf("n Enter the first coordinates x1 and y1 ");
scanf("%d%d",&x1,&y1);
printf("n Enter the second coordinates x2 and y2 ");
scanf("%d%d",&x2,&y2);
initgraph(&gd,&gm,"C:TURBOC3BGI");
deltax = x2-x1;
deltay = y2-y1;
x=x1;
y=y1;
pk =(2*deltay) - deltax;
while(i<deltax)
{
if(pk<0)
{
x = x+1;
y = y;
pk = pk+2*deltay;
}
if(pk>=0)
{
x=x+1;
y=y+1;
pk = pk+2*deltay-2*deltax;
}
putpixel(x,y,GREEN);
i = i+1;
}
getch();
closegraph();
}

32. Output of Bresenham Line Program

33. Symmetry of a Circle
x
y
450
( -y, x )
( -x, y )
( -x, -y )
( -y, -x) ( y, -x )
( x, -y )
( x, y )
( y, x)In circle generating algorithms
computations can be reduced, if we
consider symmetry of circle
Shape of circle is similar in each
quadrant
We can draw section of second
quadrant from first quadrant as it is
symmetrical around y - axis
Similarly circle section of third and
fourth qaudrant can be drawn from
first and second quadrant as it
symmetrical around x-axis

34. Symmetry of a Circle
x
y
450
( -y, x )
( -x, y )
( -x, -y )
( -y, -x) ( y, -x )
( x, -y )
( x, y )
( y, x)There is also symmetry between
octants in a circle
Two octants divided by 45 and in one
quadrant are symmetric to each other
Taking advantage of circle symmetry
in this way , we can generate all pixels
of circle by calculating only points
within a sector from x = 0 to x = y
0

35. Bresenham's Circle Algorithm
Step 1 : Read the radius ( r ) of a circle
Step 2: Calculate initial decision variable Pi
Step 3: Set x = 0 and y = r
Step 4: if (P < 0 )
{
x = x + 1
P = P + 4*x + 6
}
elseif ( P >= 0 )
{
x = x + 1
y = y - 1
P = P + 4*( x - y ) + 10
}
i
i
i
i
ii
Step 5 : Plot pixels in all octants as :
Plot( x, y )
Plot( y, x)
Plot( -y, x )
Plot( -x, y )
Plot( -x, -y )
Plot(-y, -x )
Plot( y, -x )
Plot( x, -y )
Step 6 : Stop

36. C Program of Bresenham Circle Algorithm
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<graphics.h>
void main()
{
int gd=DETECT,gm;
int x,y,xc,yc;
int radius;
float pk;
printf("n Enter the coordinates of center of circle xc and yc: ");
scanf("%d%d",&xc,&yc);
printf("n Enter the radius of circle: ");
scanf("%d",&radius);
initgraph(&gd,&gm,"C:TURBOC3BGI");
x=0;
y=radius;
pk=3-2*radius;
while(x<=y)
{
if(pk<0)
{
x=x+1;
y=y;
pk=pk+4*x+6;
}
else if(pk>=0)
{
x=x+1;
y=y-1;
pk=pk+4*(x-y)+10;
}
putpixel(xc+x,yc+y,BLUE);
putpixel(xc+y,yc+x,BLUE);
putpixel(xc-y,yc+x,BLUE);
putpixel(xc-x,yc+y,BLUE);
putpixel(xc-x,yc-y,BLUE);
putpixel(xc-y,yc-x,BLUE);
putpixel(xc+y,yc-x,BLUE);
putpixel(xc+x,yc-y,BLUE);
}
getch();
closegraph();
}

37. Output of Bresenham Circle Program

38. Midpoint Circle Algorithm
Step 1 : Input radius 'r' and circle center ( x , y ), and obtain the first point on
circumference of a circle whose center is at origin as :
k
c c
( x , y ) = (0,r)0 0
Step 2: Calculate the initial value of decision parameter as :
p = ( 5/4 ) - r0
Step 3: At each x position, starting at k = 0, perform the following test :
if p < 0, the next point along the circle centered on (0,0) is (x ,y )
otherwise, the next point along the circle is (x , y ) and
p = p + 2*x + 1
k
k
k + 1
k + 1 k - 1
k + 1 k k + 1

39. Midpoint Circle Algorithm
otherwise if p < 0, the next points along the circle is (x +1, y - 1) and
p = p + 2*x + 1 - 2*y
where 2*x = 2*x + 2 and 2*y = 2*y - 2
k
c
k + 1
k k
k + 1 k k + 1
k + 1 k k + 1 k
Step 4: Determine the symmetry points in the other seven octants
Step 5: Move each calculated pixel position ( x, y ) on to the circular path centered on
( x , y ) and plot the coordinate values as :
x = x + x and y = y + yc c
c
Step 6 : Repeat the steps 3 through 5 until x >= y

40. Solved Example - Midpoint Circle Algorithm
Given the radius of circle r = 7, with center at origin, rasterize the circle using
midpoint circle drawing algorithm
Solution : The center of given circle is at origin (0,0) and radius of circle is r = 7
therefore we take starting point as (x0,y0) = (0,r)
(x0,y0) = (0,7)
The initial value of pk is given as
pk = 1 - r
= 1 - 7
pk = -6
We will caluculate points till x<=y as below

41. Solution :
steps calculation of (x,y) point Plot
1
As pk < 0, so
x = x+1 = 0+1 = 1
y = y = 7
(x,y) = (1,7)
pk = pk+2*(x+1)+1
= -6+2*(0+1)+1
= -3
(1,7)
value of pk
-6
Solved Example - Midpoint Circle Algorithm
2
As pk < 0, so
x = x+1 = 1+1=2
y = y = 7
(x,y) = (2,7)
pk = pk+2*(x+1)+1
= -3+2*(1+1)+1
= 2
(2,7)
-3

42. Solution :
steps calculation of (x,y) point Plot
3
As pk > 0, so
x = x+1 = 2+1=3
y = y-1 =7-1 = 6
(x,y) = (3,6)
pk = pk+2*(x+1)+1 -2*(y+1)
= 2+2*(2+1)+1-2*(7+1)
= -7
(3,6)
value of pk
2
Solved Example - Midpoint Circle Algorithm
4
As pk < 0, so
x = x+1 = 3+1 = 4
y = y = 6
(x,y) = (4,6)
pk = pk+2*(x+1)+1
= -7+2*(3+1)+1
= 2
(4,6)
-7

43. Solution :
steps calculation of (x,y) point Plot
5
As pk > 0, so
x = x+1 = 4+1 = 5
y = y-1 =6-1 = 5
(x,y) = (5,5)
pk = pk+2*(x+1)+1 -2*(y+1)
= 2+2*(4+1)+1-2*(6+1)
= -1
(5,5)
value of pk
2
Solved Example - Midpoint Circle Algorithm
6
As pk < 0, so
x = x+1 = 5+1 = 6
y = y = 5
As x>y , so we will stop here and not
calculate new points
---
-1

44. C Program of Midpoint Circle Algorithm
#include<conio.h>
#include<graphics.h>
void main()
{
int gd = DETECT,gm;
int x,y,xc,yc;
int radius;
float pk;
printf("n Enter the coordinates of center of circle xc and yc : ");
scanf("%d%d",&xc,&yc);
printf("n Enter the radius of circle: ");
scanf("%d",&radius);
initgraph(&gd,&gm,"C:TURBOC3BGI");
x = 0;
y = radius;
pk = (5/4)-radius;
while(x<=y)
{
if(pk<0)
{
x=x+1;
y=y;
pk = pk+2*(x+1)+1;
}
else if(pk>=0)
{
x=x+1;
y=y-1;
pk = pk+2*(x+1)+1-2*(y+1);
}
putpixel(xc+x,yc+y,RED);
putpixel(xc+y,yc+x,RED);
putpixel(xc-y,yc+x,RED);
putpixel(xc-x,yc+y,RED);
putpixel(xc-x,yc-y,RED);
putpixel(xc-y,yc-x,RED);
putpixel(xc+y,yc-x,RED);
putpixel(xc+x,yc-y,RED);
}
getch();
closegraph();
}

45. Output of Midpoint Circle Progam

46. Polygon is a plane figure that is created
by joining straight lines to form a closed
polygon chain or polygon circuit
Polygons
The line segments of a polygon circuit
are called as edges or sides
The points where two edges of polygon
meet are called as vertices or corners
The interior of the solid polygon is
called as its body
Polygon
Not a polygon
edge
vertex

47. Any line segment with endpoints on the boundary passes through only
interior points between its endpoints
Types of Polygons
1) Convex Polygon :
Any line drawn through meets its boundary exactly twice
All interior angles are less than 1800
Convex Polygon

48. Types of Polygons
2) Simple Polygon :
The boundary of the polygon does not cross itself
All convex polygons are simple.
3) Concave Polygon :
A line may be found which meets its boundary
more than twice ( non-convex and simple )
There is a line segment between two boundary
points that passes outside the polygon
There is at least one interior angle greater than 180°
Simple Polygon
Concave Polygon

49. Types of Polygons
The whole interior is visible from at least one
point, without crossing any edge
4) Star-shaped Polygon
The polygon must be simple and all convex
polygons are star shaped
5) Self-intersecting Polygon
the boundary of the polygon crosses itself
Star-shaped Polygon
Self-intersecting Polygon

50. Types of Polygons
6) Star Polygon
A polygon which self-intersects in a regular way
A polygon cannot be both a star and star-shaped
Star Polygon

51. Polygons : Inside - Outside Test
Area filling algorithms with colors and other graphics process require to identify
interior and exterior regions of objects such as polygons
It is not always clear that which region in xy plane should be called as interior region
and which region should called as exterior region
Graphics package uses following two methods to identify interior regions of objects
1) Odd-Even Rule / Odd Parity Rule
2) Non-zero Winding Number Rule

52. Odd - Even Rule
Odd-even rule is also called Odd-parity rule or Even-odd rule
In odd-even rules straight line is drawn from any point 'P' to distant point outside the
coordinate extent of object or polygon
The path of straight line should not intersect or pass through any vertices of a polygon
If the number of edges crossed by this line is odd then point 'P' is interior point of the
polygon
If the number of edges crossed by this line is even then point 'P' is exterior point of the
polygon

53. Odd - Even Rule - Example
1) Draw a straight line point from poits P, Q, M as shown
in figure
P
Q
M
2) The number of edges crossed by straight line from
point P is 2 , which is even hence point P is exterior point
to polygon
3) The number of edges crossed by straight line from
point Q is 2 which is even hence point Q is also exterior
point to polygon
4) The number of edges crossed by straight line from
point M is 1, which is odd hence point M is interior point
to polygon

54. Nonzero Winding Number Rule
This method counts the number of times the polygon edges wind around a particular
point in counterclockwise direction
This count is called as winding number
The initial ( starting ) value of winding number is set to 0
Imagine a straight line is drawn from any point 'P' to distant point outside the
coordinate extent of object or polygon
The path of straight line should not intersect or pass through any vertices of a polygon

55. Nonzero Winding Number Rule
As we move along the line from position 'P' tothe distant point, we calculate number
of edges that crosses the lin in each direction
1 is added to the winding number if edge of the polygon crosses the line from right to
left
1 is subtracted from the winding number if edge of the polygon crosses the line from
left to right
If the final value of the winding number after all crossings have been calculated is
nonzero then point 'P' is interior point of polygon
If the final value of the winding number is zero then point 'P' is exterior point

56. Nonzero Winding Number Rule - Example
H
K
1) Draw a straight line point from points H and K as
shown in figure
2) For point H set starting value of winding number = 0
3) For point K set starting value of winding number = 0
4) First edge of the polygon crosses line from point H
from right to left hence 1 is added to winding number
4) Second edge of the polygon crosses line from point H
from left to right hence 1 is subtracted from winding
number

57. Polygon Filling Algorithms
Scan Line Algorithm Boundary Fill Algorithm Flood Fill Algorithm
4-Connected
Algorithm
4-Connected
Algorithm
8-Connected
Algorithm
8-Connected
Algorithm

58. Scan Line Polygon Fill Algorithm
y
x20 24 28 32
For each scan that crosses the polygon, the
algorithm locates intersection point between
scan line and edge of polygon as shown in fig.
The intersection points are sorted from left to
right in x-direction and paired together
m1 m2 m3 m4
All the pixels between each intersection pair of
points are then filled with given color
In the given fig. a scan line intersects polygon
at points m1, m2, m3 and m4
The intersection point are paired as m1-m2 and
m2-m3 and m3-m4
All the interior pixels from x=20 to x=24 and x=28 to
x=32 are filled with color as they are inside the polygon

59. Boundary-Fill Algorithm
We can fill the polygon with color by taking an interior point (seed point) and then start
filling color from interior to outward till the boundary of polygon is reached
If the boundary is specified in single color, the fill algorithm proceeds outward pixel by
pixel until the boundary color is identified
A boundary fill procedure accepts three inputs
interior point ( x, y ) = this point is inside the boundary of polygon
fill color - this is color to be filled in the polygon
boundary color - this is the color of boundary

60. Boundary-Fill Algorithm
The algorithm starts from interior point ( x, y ) and checks the neighboring pixels to
decide whether they are of boundary color or not
This process continues till all the pixels upto the boundary color for the area have been
tested
If not, those pixels are painted with fill color and and their neighbors are tested
boundary color ( green )
fill color ( red )

61. Types of Boundary-Fill Algorithm
4 - Connected - Four neighbors are tested 8- Connected - Eight neighbors are tested
1
2
3
4
1 2 3
4
567
8
neighouring pixels
current pixel

62. 4 - Connected Boundary-Fill Algorithm
Step 1: Initialize the value (starting values ) of seed point i.e
interior point ( x, y ) , fill color and default color ( original interior
color of polygon )
Step 2: Define the boundary values and color of polygon
Step 3: If the current seed point is of default color ,
repeat steps 4 and 5
Step 4: Change the default color with fill color at the
seed point
Step 5: Recursively follow the same procedure with four
neighborhood points
seed point
( x, y )
( x, y+1 )
( x-1, y ) (x+1, y )
(x, y-1 )
Step 6: Exit

63. C Program of Boundary Fill Algorithm - 4 Connected
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<graphics.h>
void boundaryfill4(int x,int y,int fcolor,int bcolor);
void main()
{
int gd=DETECT,gm;
initgraph(&gd,&gm,"C:TURBOC3BGI");
setcolor(WHITE);
rectangle(100,100,300,300);
boundaryfill4(120,120,RED,15);
getch();
closegraph();
}
void boundaryfill4(int x,int y,int
fcolor,int bcolor)
{
if(getpixel(x,y)!=fcolor &&
getpixel(x,y)!=bcolor)
{
delay(2);
putpixel(x,y,fcolor);
boundaryfill4(x+1,y,fcolor,bcolor);
boundaryfill4(x,y+1,fcolor,bcolor);
boundaryfill4(x-1,y,fcolor,bcolor);
boundaryfill4(x,y-1,fcolor,bcolor);
}
}

64. Output of Boundary Fill 4-Connected Program

65. 8 - Connected Boundary-Fill Algorithm
Step 1: Initialize the value (starting values ) of seed point
i.e interior point ( x, y ) , fill color and default color (
original interior color of polygon )
Step 2: Define the boundary values and color of polygon
Step 3: If the current seed point is of default color ,
repeat steps 4 and 5
Step 4: Change the default color with fill color at the
seed point
Step 5: Recursively follow the same procedure with eight
neighborhood points
seed point
( x, y )
( x, y+1 )
( x-1, y ) (x+1, y )
(x, y-1 )
Step 6: Exit
( x-1, y +1) (x+1, y +1
( x-1, y -1) (x+1, y -1

66. Output of Boundary Fill 8-Connected Program

67. In Flood-fill algorithm we replace the specified
interior color with fill color and do not search for
boundary
We recursively repeat the procedure either using 4-
connected or 8-connected method, till all all interior
points are painted with fill color
Flood-Fill Algorithm
Flood-fill algorithm is used to fill or recolor an area which
do not have single color boundary
We start with interior point and replace the color
of interior point with desired fill color
boundary with different
colors
interior area to be
painted

68. Flood-Fill Algorithm
Step 1 : Read any seed pixel or interior point ( x, y )
Step 2 : Check the interior pixel ( x, y ) has old color or not
if it has old color replace the old color with new color or given fill color
Step 3 : Repeat step 3 for all other neighboring pixels
Step 4: If all the interior pixels have been painted and no pixel of old color is found
then go to step 5
Step 5: Stop

69. C Program of Flood Fill Algorithm
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<graphics.h>
void flood(int x,int y,int fillcolor,int defaultcolor);
void main()
{
int oldcolor;
int gd = DETECT,gm;
initgraph(&gd,&gm,"C:TURBOC3BGI");
rectangle(100,100,300,300);
oldcolor = getpixel(120,120);
flood(120,120,GREEN,oldcolor);
getch();
closegraph();
}
void flood(int x,int y,int fillcolor,int defaultcolor)
{
if(getpixel(x,y)==defaultcolor)
{
delay(1);
putpixel(x,y,fillcolor);
flood(x+1,y,fillcolor,defaultcolor);
flood(x,y+1,fillcolor,defaultcolor);
flood(x-1,y,fillcolor,defaultcolor);
flood(x,y-1,fillcolor,defaultcolor);
}
}

70. Output of Flood Fill Program

71. Scan Conversion
Scan conversion is a process of representing graphics image or object as a
collection of pixels
Video display device of a computer converts binary values '0' or '1' into pixel's on and off
state
'0' means pixel is off and '1' means pixel is on
Using this information graphics computer draws image with distinct dots
Any image or object can be drawn from dense matrix of dots or points or pixel
Scan conversion process is also called as Rasterization

72. Scan Converting a Point
Suppose point P( 2.50, 1.75 ) is a point in an image area, the coordinates of point are real
numbers. We need to scan convert this point to draw it on display device. For scan
converting this point we only take integer part of the point like FLOOR(x) and FLOOR(y)
which equal to P( 2, 1 ). Then this point is point is drawn on screen.
x
y
0 1 2 3 4
1
2
3
Location of point P( 2, 1) after scan
conversion
second columnfirst row

73. Scan Conversion Process of Straight Line
y2
y1
x1 x2
Sampling of line
Straight line
x-axis
y-axis

74. Frame Buffers
Frame buffer is a portion of Random Accesss Memory (RAM) which stores picture
defination (information)
This memory area holds set of intensity values for all the screen points
Stored intensity values are then taken from frame buffer and painted on screen
on row (scan line) at a time
It is also called as refresh buffer or framestore

75. Frame Buffers
CPU System
Memory
Frame
buffer
Video
Controller Monitor
System Bus
I/O Devices
Fig : Architecture of a raster system with a fixed portion of the system
memory reserved for the frame buffer

76. Architecture of Raster System
CPU : It is central processing unit that performs arithmetic, logical and control
operations
System memory : This memory stores current program and data, it is RAM
memory and does not store data permanently
Frame Buffer : It is part of RAM which stores information about pictures and
images
Video Controller : Special processor used to control operations of display device
Monitor : It is output display device like CRT, which shows images and pictures
System bus : This is the main bus that connects main components of computer
system, it transfers data, addresses and also decide control operation
I/O devices : these are input/output devices connected to computer system

77. Character Generation Methods
In computer graphics we use following three methods to display letters, characters
and numbers in various different style and size
Stroke Method Starbust Method Bitmap Method

78. Stroke Method
Just like we use strokes of pen to write characters , in the
same way we line segments are drawn to create a
character
As characters are drawn using series of line segments, we
can various line drawing algorithms to generate a
character
We can create our own stroke method by deciding
which line segments to draw for which character
In this method we can increase or decrease (scaling) the length of line segment
used for generating the character method
Stroke method uses small line segment to draw a character
start
Fig: Stroke Method

79. Starbust Method
There are total 24 line segments
In starbust method there are fixed pattern of line segments which are used to
draw characters
Out of these 24 line segments only those line segments are drawn which are
required to display a particular character
The pattern of lines for each character are stored in 24 bit code, each bit in this
code is a line segment
For example - 24 bit code for character 'A' is 011 0000 0011 1100 1110 0001
Similarly 24 bit code for character 'M' is 0000 0011 0000 1100 1111 0011

80. Starbust Method
Requires more memory as 24 bits are required for each character
Disadvantages of starbust method :
Requires software to convert 24 bit code to character display on screen
Quality of characters drawn is poor, curved shaped characters are not drawn
properly
Fig: Character 'A' and 'M' drawn using starbust method
Fig source: slideplayer.com

81. Bitmap Method
In bitmap method characters are drawn using array(series) of dots in matrix form
(columns and rows)
This method is also called as dot matrix method
It has two dimensional array of columns and rows
5x7 array is commonly used to draw characters but, 7x9 and 9x13 are also used
Higher resolution devices like inkjet printers and laser printers even use array of
more than 100x100
Each dot in the matrix is actually a pixel

82. Bitmap Method
Fig: Character 'C' drawn using 5x7 dot matrix
dot (pixel)
dot matrix with 5
columns and 7 rows

83. Activity Time
Problems worksheet
Programming
Assignment

84. Supplemental Video
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/1
06/102/106102065/

85. Additional Resources
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_graphics
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106/102/106102065
Computer Graphics - Donald Hearn, Baker M Pauline, Pearson Education

86. Summary of Class
Line drawing
algorithms
Lesson Recap 1
C programs for line
drawing algorithms
Lesson Recap 2
Circle drawing algorithms
Lesson Recap 3
Polygon algorithms
Lesson Recap 4
Character generation methods
Lesson Recap 5

87. Thank you for attending!