teori tingkah laku

1. Behavior Therapy

2. PENGENALAN
• Teori tingkah laku adalah satu pendekatan yang
memberi fokus kepada sesuatu tingkah laku yang
diperhatikan, menumpukan kepada faktor-faktor
yang menyebabkan wujudnya tingkah laku,
pengalaman pembelajaran yang boleh membawa
kepada perubahan, menentukan strategi rawatan
yang sesuai untuk klien secara individu serta
membuat penilaian yang teliti terhadap tingkah
laku sasaran
• Terapi tingkah laku berkembang dalam empat
bidang iaitu pembelajaran klasik, pembelajaran
operan, teori pembelajaran sosial dan terapi
tingkah laku

3. Four Areas of Development
1. Classical Conditioning
– In classical conditioning certain respondent
behaviors, such as knee jerks and salivation, are
elicited from a passive organism
2. Operant Conditioning
– Focuses on actions that operate on the
environment to produce consequences
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (1)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

4. Four Areas of Development
3. Social-Learning Approach
– Gives prominence (menonjol) to the reciprocal
(timbal balik) interactions between an individual’s
behavior and the environment
4. Cognitive Behavior Therapy
– Emphasizes cognitive processes and private events
(such as a client’s self-talk) as mediators of
behavior change
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (2)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

5. Classical condtioning
Modifikasi tingkah laku ini digunakan dan diaplikasikan
oleh terapis serta pekerja profesional untuk membantu
individu meningkatkan beberapa aspek dalam kehidupan
Teori yang diperkenalkan oleh Ivan Pavlov mengatakan
bahawa setiap rangsangan akan menimbulkan gerak
balas. Gerak balas ialah apa sahaja tingkah laku yang
timbul akibat daripada rangsangan.
Manakala rangsangan pula adalah apa sahaja bentuk
tenaga yang menimbulkan gerak balas pembelajaran
boleh berlaku akibat kaitan di antara rangsangan dengan
gerak balas. Rangsangan juga boleh dikaitkan dengan
satu rangsangan yang lain untuk mendatangkan
pembelajaran. Pembelajaran yang berlaku kerana

6. RANGSANGAN
GERAK BALAS
TINGKAH LAKU

7. • 3 prinsip asas di dalam eksperimen Ivan Pavlov.
Prinsip tersebut ialah:
i. Setiap rangsangan akan menimbulkan gerak
balas
ii. Pembelajaran berlaku akibat kaitan antara
rangsangan dan gerak balas
iii. Pembelajaran yang berlaku akibat perkaitan di
antara dua rangsangan dinamakan pelaziman

9. Gambar pertama. Apabila anjing diberikan makanan
(Ransangan Tidak Terlazim – RTT ) maka secara refleks anjing
akan mengeluarkan air liur( Gerakbalas Tidak Terlazim – GTT ).
Gambar kedua. Jika loceng dibunyikan ( Ransangan neutral –
RN ) maka anjing tidak memberi respon atau mengeluarkan air
liur.
Gambar ketiga. Dalam eksperimen ini anjing diberikan
makanan (Ransangan Tidak Terlazim – RTT ) setelah
mendengar bunyi loceng (Ransangan Terlazim – RT )terlebih
dahulu, anjing akan mengeluarkan air liur akibat pemberian
makanan.
Gambar keempat. Setelah perlakuan ini dilakukan secara
berulang-ulang, maka ketika anjing mendengar bunyi loceng
(Ransangan Terlazim – RT ) tanpa diberikan makanan, secara
automatik anjing akan memberikan respon berupa keluarnya air
liur dari mulutnya ( GerakbalasTerlazim – GT )

10. PEMBELAJARAN OPERAN
• Pembelajaran operan melibatkan respons yang
dialami dalam kehidupan seharian misalnya
membaca, menulis, mendengar lagu, memandu
dll.
• Pembelajaran jenis ini melibatkan jenis
pembelajaran dengan tingkah laku adalah
dipengaruhi oleh kesan yang mengikutinya
• Sekiranya perubahan persekitaran yang
membawa kepada tingkah laku diperteguhkan
dan diberikan rangsangan untuk mendapat
respons tertentu, peluang untuk tingkah laku itu
berulang kembali adalah tinggi.

11. • Kompenen dalam pembelajaran operan
Pengukuhan (reinforcement) bertujuan untuk
menggalakan sesuatu tingkah laku
-pengukuhan positif- rangsangan yang diberi
selepas berlakunya sesuatu tingkah laku yang
dapat meningkatkan kebarangkalian berlakunya
tingkah laku yang dikehendaki (pujian, perhatian,
wang)
-pengukuhan negatif – satu proses penyingkiran
dan pengelakan yang menyebabkan tingkah laku
negatif tersebut berulang apabila menerima
peneguhan negatif (escape from unpleasant
stimuli)
Contohnya, seorang pemandu mematuhi arahan
had laju jalanraya kerana tidak mahu disaman.
Saman di sini merupakan peneguhan negatif

12. Extinction (penghapusan) – penghapusan
merupakan satu proses yang tidak wujudnya
peneguh (reinforcer). Situasi ini akan
menyebabkan tingkah laku tersebut
dihentikan.
- contoh: guru tidak menghiraukan pelajar
yang nakal dalam kelasnya.

13.  Hukuman (punishment)
mengurangkan/memberhentikan sesuatu tingkah laku
-positive – aversive stimulus is added after the
behavior to decrease the frequency of behavior
example: time out procedure with a child who is
displaying misbehavior
-negative – reinforcing stimulus is removed following
the behavior to decrease the frequency of a target
example: deducting money from a worker salary for
missing time at work.
• Pembelajaran jenis operan biasanya digunakan dalam
program pendidikan ibu bapa dan pengurusan berat
badan

14. TEORI PEMBELAJARAN SOSIAL
• Teori pembelajaran sosial dan kognitif
melibatkan interaksi bersilang antara tiga
faktor iaitu persekitaran, faktor peribadi
(kepercayaan, minat, jangkaan, persepsi kendiri
dan interpretasi) dan tingkah laku individu
• Pendekatan ini mengandaikan bahawa individu
berupaya untuk mengarahkan diri mereka
melakukan sesuatu perubahan tingkah laku

15. • Contoh pembelajaran sosial adalah
bagaimana seseorang individu dapat
membina kemahiran sosial yang baik
setelah mereka mempelajari kemahiran
interpersonal dan intrapersonal daripada
orang yang mempunyai kemahiran sosial
yang baik

16. Behavior Therapy
• A set of clinical procedures relying on experimental
findings of psychological research
– Based on principles of learning that are systematically
applied
– Focus is on the client’s current problems and on
assessing behavior through observation or self-
monitoring
– Largely action-oriented and educational – therapist
teaches clients skills of self-management
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (3)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

17. Behavior Therapy
• Behavior is something that can be operationally defined;
it includes overt (nyata) actions as well as internal
processes such as cognitions, images, beliefs, and
emotions
• Change can take place without insight into underlying
dynamics and the origins of a psychological problem
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (4)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

18. Pandangan tentang sifat semula jadi
manusia
• Semua manusia yang dilahirkan ke dunia adalah bersih dan
suci dalam keadaan kosong. Apa juga yang berlaku kepada
manusia adalah hasil daripada pembentukan tingkah laku
yang telah dibentuk oleh tekanan atau keadaan
persekitaran. Manusia dianggap makhluk yang pasif.
• Manusia biasa tidak sepenuhnya dilahirkan sebagai jahat
atau baik, sebaliknya pengalaman yang dilalui dalam hidup
menyebabkan manusia berpotensi untuk cenderung
kepada semua jenis tingkah laku
• Manusia berupaya untuk memahami konsep dan mengawal
tingkah lakunya sendiri serta berupaya untuk melakukan
tingkah laku yang baru
• Dalam teori tingkah laku moden, manusia dianggap sebagai
penghasil dan produk kepada persekitaran mereka.

19. Matlamat Terapi
• Matlamat umum terapi tingkah laku adalah
untuk mengubah tingkah laku
• To increase personal choice and create new
conditions for learning

20. Functional Assessment of
Behavior
• A-B-C model
– Antecedent(s)
– Behavior(s)
– Consequence(s)
Antecedent Behavior Consequence
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (5)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

21. Operant Conditioning Techniques
• The following techniques are used in applied behavior
analysis
– Positive reinforcement
– Negative reinforcement
– Extinction
– Positive punishment
– Negative punishment
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (6)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

22. Relaxation Training
• Progressive muscle relaxation is a popular method of
teaching people to cope with the stresses produced by daily
living
• Relaxation becomes a well-learned response, which can
become a habitual pattern if practiced daily
• Relaxation procedures have been applied to a variety of
clinical problems ranging from chronic pain to panic
disorder
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (7)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

23. Systematic Desensitization
• Based on the principle of classical conditioning, SD is a basic
behavioral procedure developed by Joseph Wolpe
• SD is an effective treatment in the reduction of maladaptive
anxiety and the treatment of anxiety-related disorders,
particularly in the area of specific phobias
• DS entails relaxation training, development of a graduated
anxiety hierarchy, and DS proper (the presentation of
hierarchy items while the client is deeply relaxed)
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (8)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

24. Exposure Therapies
• In Vivo Desensitization
– Brief and graduated exposure to an actual fear situation
or event
• Flooding
– Prolonged and intensive in vivo or imaginal exposure to
stimuli that evoke high levels of anxiety, without the
opportunity to avoid them
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (9)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

25. Exposure Therapies
• Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)
– An exposure-based therapy that involves imaginal
flooding, cognitive restructuring, and the use of rhythmic
eye movements and other bilateral stimulation to treat
traumatic stress disorders and fearful memories of
clients
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (10)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

26. Social Skills Training
• Helps clients develop and achieve skills in interpersonal
competence
• May involve various behavioral procedures such as
assessment, direct instruction and coaching, modeling, role-
playing, and homework assignments
• The feedback and reinforcement clients receive assists
them in conceptualizing and using a new set of social skills
that enables them to communicate more effectively
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (11)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

27. Assertion Training
• One specialized form of social skills training consists of
teaching people how to be assertive in varied situations
• One goal of AT is to increase people’s behavioral repertoire
so that they can make the choice of whether to behave
assertively in certain situations
• Most AT programs focus on clients’ negative self-
statements, self-defeating beliefs, and faulty thinking
• Often used in a group format
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (12)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

28. Self-Management Programs
• In S-M programs people make decisions concerning specific
behaviors they want to control or change
• S-M strategies include self-monitoring, self-reward, self-
contracting, and stimulus control
• The process includes selecting goals, translating goals into
target behaviors, self-monitoring, working out a plan for
change, and evaluating an action plan
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (13)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

29. Strengths From a Diversity
Perspective
• Behavior therapy may appeal to diverse client
populations due to its:
– specificity, task orientation, focus on objectivity, focus on
cognition and behavior, action orientation, brevity (ringkas),
emphasis on the present, commitment to teach coping
strategies, and problem-solving orientation
• Behavior therapy focuses on environmental, social, and
political conditions that contribute to a client’s problems
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (22)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

30. Limitations From a Diversity
Perspective
• Some behavioral counselors may focus on using a variety
of techniques in narrowly treating specific behavioral
problems
• Therapists who fail to conduct a thorough assessment of
the interpersonal and cultural dimensions of the client’s
problem may not adequately prepare him/her for the
possible consequences of newly acquired social skills
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (23)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

31. Contributions of Behavior
Therapy
• The specificity of the behavioral approaches helps clients
translate unclear goals into concrete plans of action
• Behavior therapists have a wide variety of specific
behavioral techniques at their disposal
• Behavioral interventions have been subjected to more
rigorous evaluation than those of any other form of
psychological treatment
• Behavior therapy emphasizes ethical accountability
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (24)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

32. Limitations of Behavior Therapy
• Heavy focus on behavioral change may detract from
client’s experience of emotions
• Some counselors believe the therapist’s role as a teacher
deemphasizes the important relational factors in the client-
therapist relationship
• Behavior therapy does not place emphasis on insight
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (25)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

33. Limitations of Behavior Therapy
• Behavior therapy tends to focus on symptoms rather than
underlying causes of maladaptive behaviors
• There is potential for the therapist to manipulate the client
using this approach
• Some clients may find the directive approach imposing or
too mechanistic
Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy - Chapter 9 (26)
©2013 Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning