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1. PHILOSOPHY: MIDTERM LECTUREPrepared by: Raizza P. Corpuz

2. ANCIENT EPOCH
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3. THREE TRIUMVIRATE IN ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
SOCRATES
PLATO
ARISTOTLE (FATHER
OF PHILOSOPHY
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4. • Socrates
The Socratic Method
DIALECTIC: A method of seeking truth
through a series of questions and answers.
The Socratic method is a “dialectic” method
teaching.
To solve a problem, it is broken down into a
series of questions, the answers to which
gradually distill the answer a person would
seek.
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5. Socrates
Ethics
Socrates' primary
concern in philosophy
was, “How should we
live?”
3 Questions
What is good?
What is right?
What is just
(justice)?
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6. Socrates
Ethics
Socrates' ethics
assumes that Education
is the key to living an
ethical life.
No one desires evil.
No one errs or does
wrong willingly or
knowingly.
Virtue—all virtue—is
knowledge.
Virtue = positive moral
behavior
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7. Plato
Socrates' Student
Founded the Academy –
First institution for higher education
First Western philosopher
whose writings have survived
Most of what we know about
Socrates comes from Plato's
writings
Agreed with Pythagoras that
Mathematics were essential in
understanding the world
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8. WILL
Plato
Ethics
Humans are made of 3
conflicting elements:
Passions
Intellect
Will
Most people live life allowing
the PASSIONS, INTELLECT and
WILL to be in conflict with one
another.
INTELLECT PASSIONS
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9. Plato
Ethics
Ideal living is when
the INTELLECT
controls the
PASSIONS through
the WILL
INTELLECT
WILL
PASSIONS
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10. Plato
Metaphysics
Reality can be divided
into two realms:
The Visible World
Forms - Ideas
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11. Plato
Metaphysics
The Visible World
Lower - Imperfect
World experienced by our
senses
Physical
Bound by Space and Time
Always changing
Always “becoming”
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12. Plato
Metaphysics
Realm of Forms-Ideas
Higher - Perfect
ULTIMATE REALITY
Not accessible to our senses
Non-Physical
Not Bound by Space and
Time
Never Changing
Always “is”
HORSE
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13. Plato's Cave
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14. CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF PLATO’S
ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE
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15. Plato
Politics: The Ideal Republic
Philosophically Aware Rulers
(Governing Class)
Police Class
(Protective Class)
General Population
(Worker Class)
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16. Aristotle
Logic
3 Areas of Learning
Theoretical
Practical
Productive
Logic is a Tool
underlying all learning
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17. AristotleLogic
Categories
Sets the boundary of terms
Essential in forming an argument
Dogs PugsAnimals
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18. Aristotle
The 4 Causes
To really “know” something you
need to know the causes of it.
Example:
What is a house?
Material Cause
The “materials” that make
up the thing.
Bricks are the material
cause of a Brick House
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19. Material Cause
Insufficiency of the Material Cause
The materials that make up a thing are
not the same as the thing itself.
A pile of Bricks is not a House
Some things can be made of different
materials.
Houses can be made of Bricks or
Wood or Metal.
Formal Cause
The FORM of the thing.
The pattern, shape, characteristics of
a thing.
Not the same as Plato's idea of Forms,
i.e. no realm of forms.
The Form does not have an existence
apart from the thing as in Plato's concept
of Forms
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20. Efficient Cause
The cause that changes
the materials into the
thing.
The Tools/Instruments
used to create the thing.
Final Cause
The reason, purpose or goal
of a thing.
Ex. The purpose of a house is to
shelter a people.
Final Cause is evidence of an
Intelligent Designer who
provides things with
purpose
Teleology – Nature
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21. Acquired by Habit
Not innate
Habit develops a disposition to act virtuously
The Golden Mean: Mid-point between 2 extremes
Courage
Cowardice RECKLESNESS
Ethics: Virtues
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22. Ethics: Virtuous Life
Know what is Right
Do what is Right
Practical Wisdom - Make
Right Decisions based on
Good Reasons
Contemplation of the Best
things NOT just Good things
– Good is the enemy of the
Best
Motivation for Doing
Anything is Flourishing (Full -
Meaningful)
A key theme in
Aristotle's
thought is
that happiness is
the goal of life.
Eudaimonia
or Happiness
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23. “We are what we repeatedly do.
Excellence, then, is not an act,
but a habit. ... At his best,
man is the noblest of all
animals; separated from law
and justice he is the worst.”
(Aristotle, 384 - 322 B.C.)
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24. Prepared by RPC2014
Medieval Philosophy

25. St. Augustine
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“You are great, O Lord, and man desires to praise you. You
so excite him that to praise you is his joy. For you have made
us for yourself and our hearts are restless until they rest in
You.”
His Philosophical Beliefs
• The man with his strength does not exceed this vicious
cycle of not being able to not want what cannot get
• Only the grace of Christ save us
• History is called original sin
Jesus says that the Holy Spirit "will convince the world concerning sin" (Jn 16:8).
As I tried to penetrate these words, I was led back to the opening pages of the
Book of Genesis, to the event known as "original sin."

26. • described the nature of this sin as
follows: amor sui usque ad contemptum
Dei—self-love to the point of contempt for
God.
• It was amor sui which drove our first parents
toward that initial rebellion and then gave rise
to the spread of sin throughout human
history.
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You have made us for yourself, and our hearts
are restless until they rest in you.”
Saint Augustine
“Confessions”.

27. His legacy
• He believed humans
cannot experience true
happiness until they
find God.
• His work centered
around the notion that
everything in the world
is basically good.
• He wrote many works
over his lifetime.
• He attempted to dispel
heresy and
blasphemous
ideologies.

28. St. Thomas Aquinas
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Aquinas developed a list of
the five divine qualities:
1. God is simple
2. God is perfect
3. God is infinite
4. God is immutable
5. God is one

29. The Nature of God
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1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul,
or matter and form.
2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from
other beings on account of God's complete actuality.Thomas defined
God as the ‘Ipse Actus Essendi subsistens,’ subsisting act of being.
3. God is infinite. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created
beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This
infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of
number.
4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of God's essence
and character.
5. God is one, without diversification within God's self. The unity of God
is such that God's essence is the same as God's existence. In
Thomas's words, "in itself the proposition 'God exists' is necessarily
true, for in it subject and predicate are the same.”

30. PHILOSOPHICAL CONTRIBUTION
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Reason
He believed that:
• Humans could – through
reason alone – know much of
the natural order, moral law,
and the nature of God
• All essential knowledge could
be organized coherently
Wrote a series of Summas (highest
works) that employed careful logic
to counter any possible objections
to truth as revealed by reason and
faith

31. Ethics
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• Four (4) Cardinal Virtues: Prudence,
Temperance, Justice, and Fortitude
• Three(3)Theological Virtues: Faith,
Hope, and Charity
• Four (4)types of Law:
1. Eternal: direct word of God, governs all
Creation
2. Natural: human adherence to eternal law,
discovered by reason
3. Human: positive law (natural law applied
to human government and society)
4. Divine: the law as defined in the
scriptures

32. ST. ANSELM
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motto is:
“faith seeking
understanding” (fides
quaerens intellectum)

33. The Ontological Argument
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1. God is that than which nothing greater
can be conceived.
2. It is greater to exist than to not exist.
3. Therefore, God exists.
Anselm is perhaps most famous for developing the
ontological argument for the existence of God.

34. MODERN PHILOSOPHY
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35. Prepared by RPC2014
THOMAS HOBBES
Argued that natural law
made absolute monarchy the
best form of gov’t…..
• Humans were natural selfish
and violent
• People couldn’t make their own
decisions
• If they did life would be “nasty,
brutish, and short”
• Only a strong ruler (Leviathan)
could give people direction
1651 – Published Leviathan (Sea Monster)

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• People shaped by their experiences not
natural violent
• All people had 3 natural rights – life,
liberty, & property
• People are born with a “tabula rasa” or
clean slate.
• Purpose of gov’t = serve the people –
people have the right to overthrow the
gov’t if it is not serving its purpose
• Social Contract – agreement b/w ruler
& people

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• Separation of Power – equal
divide power among the 3
Branches of gov’t
• Executive (Monarch) enforce
laws, Legislative (Parliament)
makes laws, Judicial (Courts)
interpret laws
• By separating these powers,
gov’t could not become too
powerful – checks and
balances
• 1748 – published – Spirit of
Laws

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• 1762 – published Social Contract
• Gov’t should be based on a Social
Contract
• Everyone must agree to be
governed by the general will –
whats good for the people
(foundation for totalitarian gov’t)
• Humans being were naturally good
but corrupted by society
• Importance on Education and Civic
Virtue – train ppl how to be good
citizens.
• People should pay more attention
to emotions & feelings instead of
new ideas –seek a balance

39. CONTEMPORARY

40. Søren Kierkegaard
• 1813-1855, Danish
• Considered to be the first Existential
Philosopher
• Considered as “the Father of
Existentialism”
• Insisted on the distinctiveness of personal
experience/subjectivity.
• He argues, “subjectivity is truth, truth is
subjectivity

41. Human Nature
• For Kierkegaard, human beings stand out as
responsible individuals who must make free
choices.

42. • According to him the deepest "inwardness" of
the human being is the place of passionate
choice wherein one must take a "leap of
faith" despite one's finitude, the fact that we
can never know with certainly the outcome of
our choices despite our accountability for
them.
• His psychological work explored the emotions
and feelings of individuals when faced with
life choices.

43. There are three modes of existence that can be
chosen by an individual.
(3 Sphere/Stages of Life’s Way)
1.aesthetic = a redefined hedonism, consisting
of the search for pleasure
2.ethical = involves intense commitment to one’s
duty in faith and social obligations
3.religious = submission to God, and only God’s
will

44. “Christianity is therefore not a doctrine, but
the fact that God has existed.”
"...the thing is to find a truth which is true
for me, to find the idea for which I can live
and die"

45. Arthur Schopenhauer
• The World as Will and Idea /
Representation
• The human body and all its parts
being the visible expression of the
will and its several desires. The
teeth, throat, and bowels for
example being "objectified"
hunger.

46. • For Schopenhauer, who is considered to be a
pessimistic philosopher, the tragedy of life
arises from the nature of the will, which
constantly urges the individual toward the
satisfaction of successive goals, none of which
can provide permanent satisfaction for the
infinite activity of the life force, or will

47. • The title of Schopenhauer’s masterwork
contains the central thesis of his philosophy.
• The world is a “phenomenon,” a
representation or idea ; Schopenhauer makes
no distinction between a phenomenon and an
appearance; he says that the two are
identical.
• The world as we know it is an appearance or
deception.

48. Jean Paul Sartre
• 1905-1980
• 20th century’s greatest existential
thinker
• French
• “Existence precedes essence”-
– What makes you who you are by what
you make of yourself.
• We are all “condemned to be free”
Believed that there is no authority
that defines freedom or provides
rules or guarantees decisions.

49. Existence – Humanism-- Essence

50. IT MEANS:

51. Being and Nothingness
Existentialism is Humanism
• Meaning there is total responsibility
on the individual for all actions.
• Sartre is convinced that human responsibility makes
sense only if there is no God; otherwise divine
foreknowledge and predestination necessarily
exclude alternative options and consequently
responsibility.

52. There are at least three circles in the
extension of our responsibility:
1. Individual responsibility: If existence
precedes essence man is responsible for his
own actions (and his individuality)
2. Total Responsibility: If man is free to choose
what he is going to make of himself, he is
entirely responsible for what he is becoming;

53. 3. Universal Responsibility: If man is fully
responsible for what he is presenting as the
image of man, he is responsible for all men
• Individual responsibility corresponds to the
common sense notion of responsibility.

54. “Hell is other people”- NO EXIT
Hell is other people because we
can try and force the others
to see us in the way we want
them to see us, but they will
always see us in the way they
want to see us.
The form which is easiest for
them in most cases.

55. Friedrich Nietzsche

56. Friedrich Nietzsche and Nihilism
• So in saying “God is dead” this was
what he really meant:
• Nietzsche sought to draw the
consequences of the death of God, the
collapse of any theistic support for
morality
• In such a situation the individual is
forced back upon himself.
AKA. Personal responsibility

57. There are two ways to take this:
• On the one hand, if he is weakly
constituted he may fall victim to despair
in the face of nihilism, the recognition
that life has no intrinsic meaning.
• On the other hand, for a “strong” or
creative individual nihilism presents a
liberating opportunity to take
responsibility for meaning, to exercise
creativity by “transvaluing” her values,
establishing a new “order of rank.”

58. • Friedrich Nietzsche is notable for having
declared that God is dead and for having
written several of his works in the
presumption that man must find a new mode
of being given the death of God.

59. GOD IS DEAD
• Implications of the Death of God according to
Nietzsche:
• Rejection of absolute values. (Can’t have a
"secularized" form of Christianity)
• Nihilism (because most men in the West know no
other values but Christian values)
• "Active nihilism" a nihilism that seeks to destroy
what it no longer believes

60. SUPERMAN
• Ubermensch or superman [Zarathustra] is not
superior in breeding or endowment, but in
power and strength.
• The superman confronts all the possible
terrors and wretchedness of life and still
joyously affirms it.
• In Thus Spake Zarathustra Nietzsche
proclaims, "Not `humanity’ but Superman is
the goal." "Man is something that must be
surpassed; man is a bridge and not a goal."

61. • Superman is not inevitable, the result of some
determined process. It is more a myth, a goal
for the will: "Superman is the meaning of the
earth. Let your will say: Superman is to
be the meaning of the earth." Superman
cannot come unless superior individuals have
the courage to transvalue all values.

62. • For Nietzsche a recognition that God is Dead
to his own generation of men and women
ought to come as a Joyous Wisdom allowing
individuals to lead less guilt-ridden lives in a
world that was no longer to be seen as being
inherently sinful.
• He considered that earthly lives could
become more joyful, meaningful and
"healthy" when not lived within narrow limits
set by faith-related concerns for the state of
an individual's eternal soul.

63. • Nietzsche seems to be suggesting that the
acceptance that God is dead will also involve the
ending of long-established standards of morality
and of purpose.
• Without the former and accepted widely
standards society has to face up to the possible
emergence of a nihilistic situation where peoples
lives are not particularly constrained by faith-
based considerations of morality or particularly
guided by any faith-related sense of purpose.

64. • Given what he saw as the "unbelievability" of
the "God-hypothesis" Nietzsche himself
seemed to favour the creation of a new set of
values "faithful to the earth."
• This view perhaps being associable with the
possibility of the "Overman" or "Superman."

65. • "I teach you the overman. Man is something
that shall be overcome.
• What have you done to overcome him? All
beings so far have created something beyond
themselves; and do you want to be the ebb of
this great flood and even go back to the beasts
rather than overcome man? What is the ape
to man? A laughingstock or a painful
embarrassment. And man shall be just that for
the overman: a laughingstock or a painful
embarrassment..."

66. Nihilism- nothingness
• Nihilism- belief that
traditional morals,
values, ideas, etc. have
no worth or value
• The denial of existence
as any basis for
knowledge or truth
• There is no meaning or
purpose to existence
(nil).

68. -END-
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