Behaviorism is a theory that explains human and animal behavior in terms of conditioning and reinforcement, without considering internal mental states. It focuses on observable behaviors and events. John Watson established methodological behaviorism which rejected introspection and sought to understand behavior through objective measurement. B.F. Skinner developed radical behaviorism which included private events in analyzing behavior. Behaviorism influenced early approaches to behavior modification but was later challenged by humanistic and cognitive approaches which consider internal thoughts and feelings.

1. Perspectives in Psychology

2. Behaviorism

3. What is Behaviourism?
• This theory is that human and animal behaviour can be explained in
terms of conditioning, without appeal to thoughts or feelings, and that
psychological disorders are best treated by altering behaviour patterns.
• It assumes that all behaviors are either reflexes produced by a response
to certain stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that
individual's history, including especially reinforcement and
punishment, together with the individual's current motivational state
and controlling stimuli.
• Behaviorism combines elements of philosophy, methodology, and
psychological theory.

4. ❧ During the first half of the twentieth century, John B. Watson devised methodological
behaviorism, which rejected introspective methods and sought to understand behavior by only
measuring observable behaviors and events.
❧ Watson's behaviorism states that only public events (behaviors of an individual) can be
objectively observed, and that therefore private events (thoughts and feelings) should be ignored.
It also became the basis for the early approach behavior modification in the late 1970s and early
1980s.
❧ Radical behaviorism, or the conceptual analysis of behavior, was pioneered by B. F. Skinner and
is his "philosophy of the science of behavior." It refers to the philosophy behind behavior analysis,
and is to be distinguished from methodological behaviorism—which has an intense emphasis on
observable behaviors—by its inclusion of thinking, feeling, and other private events in the
analysis and theorizing of human and animal psychology.

5. Types of Behaviourism
• METHODOLOGICAL BEHAVIOURISM: considered Psychology as purely
objective experimental branch of natural science. Its goal is to predict and control
the behaviour.
• Introspection is of no value as it has no scientific basis.
• They say no difference between a man and an animal.
• Watson's (1913) methodological behaviourism asserts the mind is tabula rasa (a
blank slate) at birth.
• RADICAL BEHAVIOURISM: was founded by B.F. Skinner and agreed with
Watson’s belief of what the goal of psychology should be.
• Skinner accepts the view that organisms are born with innate behaviours, and thus
recognizes the role of genes and biological components in behaviour.

6. Assumptions in Behaviorism
• The behaviorist perspective holds four assumptions as its bases. The four assumptions are:
Determinism, Empiricism, Reductionism and Environmentalism.
• Determinism: This views that all our behavior is determined by past events. This means that
behavior can be predicted with knowledge of the stimulus causing the behavior.
• Empiricism: This assumption believes that psychology is scientific and hence should be
empirical. It means that behavior is over and can be observed, recorded and measure and does not
need support from mental events.
• Reductionism: This means that human behavior can be reduced to simple components of
stimulus and response (S-R) associations which are learnt. These are learnt by an individual
through conditioning.
• Environmentalism: This assumption believes that all behavior results from experience and less
from biology and genetics. This views behavior as a result of environmental factors than internal
factors and supports Nature in the Nature Vs Nurture debate.

7. Ivan Pavlov
Theory
Pavlov was a behaviorist. This means that his theories focused on observable behavior, because behavior can be
measured and thought can not. The human mind should be interpreted as a black box that can not be opened. Only was
goes in the box and what comes out can be known. Scientific evidence is the keyword in his theory.
Pavlov studied reflexes, automatic behavior that is caused by a stimulus from the environment. Some reflexes, such as
blinking your eyes when a puff of air comes in it, or the sucking of a baby when something is put in his/her mouth. This
automatic behavior can be manipulated. This is called conditioning. In this conditioning process, a unconditional
stimulus is given to a person. This stimulus causes a reflex on its own. When the unconditional stimulus is now given to
the person together with a stimulus that does not cause a reflex on its own. Thus, a unconditional stimulus is given
together with a conditional stimulus. Because the presence of the unconditional stimulus, the reflex is caused. This
process of stimulus-response is repeated for a number of times. After a while, the unconditional stimulus is not offered
any more. Only the conditional stimulus is offered. Because of the repeated association of the unconditional and the
conditional stimulus, the conditional stimulus will now cause the reflex on its own. Classical conditioning is succeeded.
Pavlov's theories where very influential, in particular in the field of child psychology.
Research and experiments
The theory of Pavlov could be tested in experiments that where conducted in a laboratory. He often used animals in his
experiments. His most famous experiment is the one, in which he used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. The
dogs he used showed a salivation response when they where offered food (unconditional stimulus). The food was offered
a number of time with the sound of a buzzer (conditional stimulus). After this, the sound of the buzzer alone could
produce the salivation response.

8. Contributions of J. B. Watson
• Watson’s behaviorist theory focused not on the internal emotional and
psychological conditions of people, but rather on their external and outward
behaviors. He believed that a person’s physical responses provided the only
insight into internal actions. He spent much of his career applying his theories to
the study of child development and early learning.
• Child psychology: In 1928, he published Psychological Care of Infant and Child,
cautioning people against providing children with too much affection and
endorsed the practice of treating children like miniature adults. He believed that
excessive early attachments could contribute to a dependent, needy personality in
adulthood. He specifically argued against thumb-sucking, coddling, and excessive
sentimentality, and he emphasized that parents should be open and honest with
children about sexuality.

9. Postulates of Watson’s Behaviorism
• Behaviorism is basically composed of Glandular secretions and
muscular movements.
• There is an immediate response to every stimulus and every
response has some kind of stimulus.
• Behavior is successfully analyzed by objective natural and
scientific methods.
• Continuous process if they indeed exist, can’t be studied
scientifically should be ignored.

10. Neobehaviorism
• Neobehaviorism is a system of psychology that followed behaviorism
with no clear separation between the two, and is predominantly
associated with B. F. Skinner. The neobehaviorist movement lasted
from approximately 1930 to 1960 and supported the idea that all
learning and behavior can be described in terms of conditioning.
• Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a term coined
by B. F. Skinner in 1937 and is a type of learning in which an
individual’s behavior is modified by its consequences; the behavior
may change in form, frequency, or strength.

11. Cognitive Psychology

12. What is Cognitive Psychology
● Cognitive Psychology is branch of psychology that studies mental process
including how people think, process, perceive, remember and learn.
● The core focus of cognitive psychology is how people acquire, process and
store information.
● cognitive psychology refers to the study of mental process and their role in
thinking, feeling and behaving

15. Humanistic and Existential
Approach to Psychology

16. Definition
• A kind of psychotherapy that promotes self-awareness and personal
growth by stressing the current reality and by analyzing and altering
specific patterns of response to help a person realize his/her potential .
• This process may be facilitated in a group setting where additional
aspects of problems are revealed through interaction with others.
• Kinds of humanistic existential psychotherapy are client-centered
therapy, existential therapy, and Gestalt therapy.

17. Humanism and Existentialism
• Humanism and existentialism entered into psychology as mutual
partners of the third force.
• The major difference is that
– Humanism assumes people are basically good,
– Whereas existentialism assumes people are neither good nor bad
(human nature has no inherent quality).
• Both place a priority on the meaning of life and purpose within life. In
humanistic psychology, the effort is focused more on the search for
meaning and the need for fulfillment and purpose in life.

18. Existentialist and Humanistic Theorists
• Believe in Free Will
– Humanist do not believe that human being are pushed and pulled
by mechanical forces, either of stimuli and reinforcements
(behaviorism) or of unconscious instinctual impulses
(psychoanalysis).
• Emphasize the uniqueness of each individual
• Believe that humans strive for an upper level of capabilities.
• Humans seek the frontiers of creativity, the highest reaches of
consciousness and wisdom.

19. Humanistic Psychology
• Humanistic psychology (also known as the “third force”) started in the 1950s.
• A theoretical approach that emphasizes each individual’s perception and experience
of their world and tends to view people as being thinking, creative and growth
oriented.
• This perspective grew largely out of frustration with both behaviorism and
psychoanalysis.
• The focus of psychology should not be on observable behavior and how it can be
manipulated (behaviorism).
• Nor should it be on unconscious motivation and how to understand it (psychoanalysis).
• Instead psychology should be about an unbridled pursuit of a profound understanding
of human nature (human emotion and the essence of being).

20. History of humanistic Psychology
• Basically, emerged in the 1950’s-60’s ( After WWII)
• Martin Heidegger – wrote “Being and Time” (1927), in which he thoroughly describes the
nature of the question of existence.
• Heidegger’s work defined the existential movement and allows us to ask ourselves the same
questions.
• Alfred Adler – influence of “healthy lifestyles.”
• Maslow (1943) developed a hierarchical theory of human motivation.
• Carl Rogers (1946) publishes Significant aspects of client-centered therapy (also
called person centered therapy).
• The first issue of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology appeared in the Spring of
1961.
• Humanistic Psychology is base on philosophies of existentialism and humanism

21. Humanism
• It is a psychological approach that emphasizes the study of the whole person, and
the uniqueness of each individual.
Existentialism
• Emphasized the quest for personal meaning and determining personal values.
• Emotional and psychological difficulties are viewed as inner conflict caused by an
individual's confrontation with the givens of existence.
• Rather than delve into the past, the existential approach looks at the here and now,
exploring the human condition as a whole and what it means for an individual.

22. Basic principles behind Humanistic School
• Someone’s present functioning is their most significant aspect.
• To be mentally healthy, individuals must take personal responsibility
for their actions.
• Each person, simply by being, is inherently worthy.
• The ultimate goal of living is to attain personal growth and
understanding.
• The person should be viewed holistically
• Each person has innate self-actualization tendency

23. Abraham Maslow
• Has been considered as the Father of Humanistic Psychology
• He was an American psychologist who was best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a
theory of self-actualization.
• In 1951, he became chairman of the psychology department at Brandeis University, which positioned
him well to establish humanistic psychology as a formal line of study.
• According to Maslow we are motivated to fulfill needs, but since our needs are ordered hierarchically,
we must proceed incrementally, fulfilling our most basic needs first before proceeding to the other
levels.
• He placed emphasis on choice, creativity, values, self- realization, all distinctively human qualities, and
believed that meaningfulness and subjectivity were more important than objectivity.

24. • Maslow's (1943, 1954) hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in
psychology comprising a five tier model of human needs, often
depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
• Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and
that some needs take precedence over others.
• Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first
thing that motivates our behaviour. Once that level is fulfilled the next
level up is what motivates us, and so on.

26. Changes to the original five-stage model are highlighted and include
a seven-stage model.
• Cognitive needs - knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for
meaning and predictability.
• Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
• 'It refers to the person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him
to become actualized in what he is potentially.
• The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from
person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal
mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be
expressed in painting pictures or in inventions'

27. Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
• Carl Rogers applied humanistic principles in clinical settings, proposing a
client-centered approach to psychotherapy.
•
• Like other humanists, Rogers believed self-actualization to be natural, but he
also believed it could be nurtured (“assisted”).
• Because people need other people, Rogers believed that self-actualizing did
not need separation from other needs and could be addressed clinically.
• His clinical work was unorthodox, but very successful. At the request of
others, Rogers put together a method and theory for his results.

28. Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Approach
• Rogers believed that humans are basically good.
• He argued that we have an innate drive to reach an optimal sense of ourselves &
satisfaction with our lives.
• A person who pays attention to the organismic valuing process is self-actualizing
or fully functioning
• A person who is fully functioning has several characteristics: openness to
experience, existential living, organismic trusting, experiential freedom, and
creativity

29. Strengths
• Shifted the focus of behavior to the individual / whole person rather
than the unconscious mind, genes, observable behavior etc.
• Humanistic psychology satisfies most people's idea of what being
human means because it values personal ideals and self-fulfillment.
• Qualitative data gives genuine insight and more holistic information
into behavior.
• Highlights the value of more individualistic and idiographic
methods of study.

30. Limitations
• Ignores biology.
• Unscientific – subjective concepts.
• E.g. cannot objectively measure self-actualization.
• Humanism ignores the unconscious mind.
• Behaviorism – human and animal behavior can be compared.
• Qualitative data is difficult to compare.
• Ethnocentric (biased towards Western culture).
• Their belief in free will is in opposition to the deterministic laws of science.

31. Existential Psychology
• Existential psychology is an approach to psychology
and psychotherapy that is based on several premises, including:
– understanding that a "whole" person is more than the sum of
his or her parts;
– understanding people by examining their interpersonal
relationships,
– understanding that people have many levels of self-awareness
that can be neither ignored nor put into an abstract context

32. Basic Distinguishing Features of the Existential Approach
• A focus on issues of freedom
• A confrontation with fears of death, alienation, and aloneness
• An emphasis on taking responsibility for one’s life
• A compatibility with other, more action-oriented theories
• A challenge to discover the meanings behind one’s choices and actions
• A search for a personal philosophy to guide daily life

33. Existential Psychology
• Three levels of meaning:
– ultimate meaning (e.g., an order to the universe),
– meaning of the moment,
– common, day-to-day meaning
• Life’s meaning is discovered in three ways:
• by doing a deed – accomplishment,
• By experiencing something or encountering someone.
• by suffering – with a right attitude

34. Existential Psychology
• The existentialist, are more interested in guiding/accompanying clients to find
philosophical meaning while they face anxiety.
• This is done by exploring the importance of choosing to think and act
authentically and responsibly.
• According to existential psychology, the fundamental problems clients face are
rooted in anxiety over isolation, loneliness, despair, and, eventually, death.
• The existential psychologist assumes that the clients’ problems are due to not
being able to use their judgment or make choices enough/well enough in order to
create meaning in their lives.
• When outside influences may play a role in the clients’ limited ability to carry out
choices, the existential psychologist and the clients will confront these influences
in order to move forward.

35. EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
• Psychopathology is failure to make meaningful choices and
maximize one’s potential
• Anxiety can be healthy & motivational, causing people to change
• Counselors concentrate on being authentic and developing deep
and personal relationships

36. VIKTOR FRANKL
• Viktor Frankl was born March 26, 1905, and died September 2, 1997, in Vienna, Austria. He
was influenced during his early life by Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler. Frankl earned a
medical degree from the University of Vienna Medical School in 1930.
• From 1940 to 1942, he was the director of the Neurological Department of the Rothschild
Hospital, and from 1946 to 1970 was the director of the Vienna Polyclinic of Neurology. In
1942, Frankl was deported to a Nazi concentration camp along with his wife, parents, and
other family members.
• He spent time in four camps in total, including Auschwitz, from 1942 to 1945, and was the only
member of his family to survive. In 1945, he returned to Vienna and published a book on his
theories, based on his records of observations during his time in the camps. By the time of his
death, his book, Man's Search for Meaning, had been published in 24 languages.

37. Logotherapy
• Frankl believed that humans are motivated by something called a "will to
meaning," which equates to a desire to find meaning in life. He argued that
life can have meaning even in the most miserable of circumstances and
that the motivation for living comes from finding that meaning. Taking it a
step further, Frankl wrote:
• Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human
freedoms—to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances.
• This opinion was based on his experiences of suffering and his attitude of
finding meaning through suffering. In this way, Frankl believed that when
we can no longer change a situation, we are forced to change ourselves.

38. • "Logos" is the Greek word for meaning, and logotherapy involves helping a patient
find personal meaning in life. Frankl provided a brief overview of the theory
in Man's Search for Meaning.
• Core Properties
• Frankl believed in three core properties on which his theory and therapy were
based:
• Each person has a healthy core.
• One's primary focus is to enlighten others to their own internal resources and
provide the tools to use their inner core.
• Life offers purpose and meaning but does not promise fulfillment or happiness.

39. ROLLO MAY
• Essentially, May saw people living in the world of present experiences
and ultimately being responsible for who they become. May believed
that may people lack the courage to face their destiny and while in the
process of fleeing from it, they give up much of their freedom. Having
negated their freedom, they likewise run away from responsibility. Not
being willing to make choices, they lose sight of who they are and
develop a sense of insignificance and alienation.
• In contrast, healthy people challenge their destiny, cherish their
freedom, and live authentically with other people and themselves.
They recognize the inevitability of death and have the courage to live
life in the present.

40. • Basic Concepts
• Being-in-the-world
– No separation between object and subject
•
• Three modes of being-in-the-world
– In the environment
– In our relations with others
– In our relation with ourselves
• Not being-in-the-world leads to nonbeing or the dread of nothingness

41. • Anxiety
• When we become aware of our existence or some value identified with it might be destroyed
• Normal anxiety occurs when it is proportionate to the threat, doesn’t involve repression, or other forms of
intrapsychic conflict
• Neurotic anxiety occurs when it is disproportionate to the threat, does involve repression, or does involve
other forms of intrapsychic conflict
• Guilt
• Arises when people deny their potential, fail to accurately perceive the needs of fellow human, or remain
oblivious to their dependence on the natural world
• People act with intention. Intention and action are woven together.
• Care, Love, & Will, too, are interrelated.
• Love requires knowing how to care for someone. Care however is the source of love.
• Will organizes one into action and toward a goal.