Architecture

Art and Architecture of India
Art and architecture are true manifestations
of the culture of a period as they reflect the
mind and approach of that society. It is here
that the ideas and techniques of a society
find visual expression.

Phases of Art and Architecture
• Architectural forms in Indian history largely began with proto-
historical sites, the Indus Civilization and then Buddhist and Jain
stupa architecture.
• After the Gupta age, temple architecture became the dominant
form of public architecture.
• Later, the arrival of Arabs, Turks, and Mughals saw the introduction
of the architectural forms of masjids (mosques) and maqbaras
(tombs), madrasas (centres of learning), tanks, waterworks and
caravan serais (inns) on a large scale.
• Fort construction stemmed from the need for medieval military
fortification.
• In the colonial phase, the Europeans brought concepts and forms of
European architecture.

Indus valley civilization
• Distinctive features of Indus valley civilization
(Understanding the civilisation with the help
of Mohenjodaro )
• Many unique and distinctive features are
associated with the site. Some of are given
below:
– Town planning and domestic architecture
– Famous monumental buildings
– Laying of drains

Town Planning:
• Harappan cities demonstrated a sophisticated sense of civil planning and
organization.
• City was generally divided into smaller citadel area in the western part and larger
residential area in the eastern part.
• The essential institutions of civic life were located in citadel area.
• Huge man made brick platforms formed the foundation of the buildings of citadel.
• It generally had defense walls and bastions with elaborate entrances.
• City planning roughly followed grid pattern with streets cutting each at right angle.
• Drainage system was carefully planned.
• Houses generally had a courtyard as the focus with rooms opening on to it.
• Most houses had individual wells, bathing places and drains.
• All structure of importance was made of burnt bricks.
• Brick work shows experience and expertise.

Some important structures discovered from
Harappan sites are:
• The Great Bath
(Mohenjodaro) is Specimen of
one of the most advanced
water management systems
of early India
• Granary at Mohenjodaro
• Assembly Hall (Collegiate
Building) at Mohenjodaro
• Granary at Harappa
• Workmen’s quarters
comprising fourteen small
houses built in two blocks
separate by a long narrow
lane, excavated at Harappa.

Seals
• Seals are most distinctive artifact of IVC. They were generally made of
steatite (soft stone) and had signs, symbols and animal motifs on it.
• They were used as a means of authentication and had commercial
content.
• Seals were the greatest of artistic creation of Harappan people.
• the outstanding contribution of the Indus civilization to ancient
craftsmanship.
• generally square and rectangular in shape and made of steatite.
• They display variety of signs and symbols
• Most frequently depicted animal on Harappan seal is Unicorn and most
famous Harappan seal is ‘Pashupati seal’ discovered from Mohenjodara. It
depicts a horned deity sitting in a yogic posture surrounded by an
elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, a buffalo and two antelopes. John Marshall
identified it as Proto-siva.

Beads and its making:
• Beads of gold, silver, copper, faience, steatite, shell,
semi-precious stones like carnelian, jasper are known.
• beads made of steatite are numerous.
• Beads were generally manufactured from locally available
raw materials.
• shell objects excavated from coastal sites like Nageshwar,
Balakot and Lothal etc.
• Techniques used for bead making involved polishing,
drilling, cutting, etching etc. raw material were chipped into
rough shapes and then finally flaked into the final
form/shape.
• Specialized drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal
and Dholavira

Harappan Pottery
• Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character.
• It is chiefly wheel made bright or dark red in colour and
is well baked.
• Both plain and painted ware is found. The plain variety
of pottery being more common.
• Different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome,
incised, perforated and knobbed were known to
Harappan people.
• Painted designs or some pieces show a remarkable
artistic touch. Generally flora, fauna, geometrical
designs and scenes from forest life were illustrated on
the potteries

Buildings/ Architecture (c. 600 BCE -
600 CE)
• Certain general characteristics of art and architecture of ancient
period is given below :
• Art activities were mostly related to religions.
• In early period representations of Buddha in the form of Bodhi tree,
Stupa, foot prints, etc. were made and worshiped
• as early as 1st century BCE images of Buddha began to be sculpted.
• The construction of Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas became popular.
• Because of regular interactions with other cultures in this period we
also find elements of non-Indian art in the artistic creations of this
period. This is particularly true of the Gandhara region which
produced art typical to the region, in which many different
elements came to be assimilated.

Stone Statues
Bust of a bearded priest
• The stone statuaries found
at Harappa and
Mohenjodaro are

Type of Architecture
• The architecture of this period can be broadly
divided in two categories :
(1) Residential structures: few surviving monuments
since in the initial phase they were built of
perishable materials like wood.
(2)Religious monuments
Stupas
Rock-Cut Architecture
Temples

Religious monuments
• Stupas:
Buddhist art adopted the practice of preserving the remains of an
important personality below accumulated earth and built structure
over such a site. This structure was worshiped and was known as
Stupa (a Sanskrit word meaning a heap).
• Since they contained relics regarded as sacred, the entire stupa
came to be venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and
Buddhism.
• According to Buddhist sources, the remains of the Buddha's body
were divided into eight parts and placed under the Stupas. These
during the time of Asoka, were dug out and redistributed which led
to the construction of other Stupas.
• Ashoka is known to have built 84,000 stupas to commemorate
various events of Buddha’s life.

Structure of Stupas and its important
components
• The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later
called anda.
• It had the shape of a bowl turned upside down i.e hemispherical
dome.
• At the top, which was a bit flat, used to be its harmika, i.e. the
abode of the Gods. It was here that the urns containing the remains
of the Buddha or a great personality connected with the religion
were placed in a gold or silver casket.
• A wooden rod (Yashti) was placed in its middle and the bottom of
the rod was fixed on the top of the Stupa.
• On the top of this rod were placed three small umbrella type discs
symbolising respect, veneration and magnanimity.
• Gradually, it evolved into a more complex structure, balancing
round and square shapes.

• The earliest examples of rock-cut cave architecture are the Barabar
caves (Barabar Hills, Gaya; donated by Ashoka to Ajivikas) and the
Nagarjuna caves (donated by Dasaratha) which set the tradition for
the later periods.
• Buddhists and the Jainas built Chaityas and Viharas as places of
worship.
• A chaitya is a shrine cell with a votive Stupa place in the centre. It
was used as worshipping hall.
• Viharas were monastries primarily cut out of rocks for the residence
of monks.
• Most of the major Chaityas and Viharas of ancient period were
built in western and eastern regions. For example in western India,
they are located at Bhaja, Karle, Nasik, Ajanta and Kanheri, etc.
Similarly, in eastern India we have them in Udayagiri (Orissa).

Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh)
• Sanchi is about 14 kilometers from Vidisa (Bhilsa) and is perhaps the most famous Stupa site
in India.
• originally made of brick in Asoka's time (c. 250 BCE).
• During the Sunga period around150 BCE ,it was nearly doubled in circumference.
• The bricks of Asokan times were replaced by stones, and a Vedika was also constructed
around it.
• Four wonderful gateways forming the entrances to the procession path between stupa and
the surrounding railing, one in each direction, were added towards the end of 1st century BCE
to beautify it.
• The reliefs of Sanchi display (among other representations) the following quite prominently:
• The four great events of the Buddha's life, i.e. birth, attainment of knowledge,
dharmachakra- pravartana and Mahaparinirvana.
• Representations of birds and animals like lion, elephant, camel, ox, etc. are abundant.
• Lotus and wishing-vines have been prominently and beautifully carved out as ornamentation,
and
• Unique representation of forest animals in a manner which looks as if the whole animal
world turned out to worship the Buddha

Eastern Gateway A section of Gateway

• Bharhut Stupa: This Stupa was located 21
kilometers south of Satna in Madhya Pradesh.
The main Stupa structure no longer exists.
• Amaravati Stupa: Located 46 kilometres from
Guntoor, the Stupa was built with white marble.
Though the Stupa itself has completely
disappeared its sculptured panels have been
preserved in Madras and British Museums. The
Stupa was primarily built with the help of the
City-Chief and the donations from the public

Rock-Cut Architecture
• The earliest examples of rock-cut cave architecture are the Barabar
caves (Barabar Hills, Gaya; donated by Ashoka to Ajivikas) and the
Nagarjuna caves (donated by Dasaratha) which set the tradition for
the later periods.
• Buddhists and the Jainas built Chaityas and Viharas as places of
worship.
• A chaitya is a shrine cell with a votive Stupa place in the centre. It
was used as worshipping hall.
• Viharas were monastries primarily cut out of rocks for the residence
of monks.
• Most of the major Chaityas and Viharas of ancient period were
built in western and eastern regions. For example in western India,
they are located at Bhaja, Karle, Nasik, Ajanta and Kanheri, etc.
Similarly, in eastern India we have them in Udayagiri (Orissa).

The general features of the Chaityas
are :
• They have a long rectangular hall ending in a semi-circle at
the rear end.
• This long hall is internally divided into a nave, an apse and
two side aisles.
• The aisles are separated from the nave by two rows of
pillars.
• The pillars come round the votive Stupa placed in the
centre of the apsidal part of the nave.
• The hall has a barrel-vaulted ceiling.
• The doorway is usually placed facing the votive Stupa.
• The facade has a horse-shoe shaped window called the
chaitya window.

Viharas or monasteries
• Both Buddhists and Jainas for the use of
monks.
• The following are the general features of the
Viharas:
– They have a square or oblong hall in the centre.
– The hall is preceded in front by a pillared veranda.
– A number of small square cells are provided.
– The cells and halls are usually provided with raised
benches for the use of monks.

• The earliest of the Viharas of western India are
those at such sites as Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajanta,
Pitalkora, Nasik and Karle.
• Among the Jaina Viharas, those at Udayagiri and
Khandagiri (Orissa) were excavated during the
time of Kharavela.
• In the Deccan, some of the finest rock-cut caves
were excavated. There are nine caves at Udaygiri
near Vidisa. These are partly rock-cut and partly
stone-built.

RANI GUMPHA, KHANDAGIRI, Orissa, Jaina caves, 1st century A.D.
The rock-cut caves of the Jaina tradition are very similar to those of
the Buddhist faith. Besides the philosophic concepts, symbols and
artistic motifs of both streams are the same in this period. For
instance, one sees many chaitya arches in the Khandagiri caves.

• Another notable group of rock cut
monasteries and chaitya halls are those of
Ellora. The Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain
caves show the final phase of development.
For the Kailash temple, a block of hill side was
cut off, and was carved into a magnificent
monolithic temple with a spacious hall and
finely carved pillars.

• At Mamallapuram, number of pillared halls
and the seven monolithic temples popularly
called rathas were carved by the Pallava kings,
Mahendravarman and Narasimhavarman in
the seventh century CE. The rathas are the
culmination of complete reproduction of
massive structural temples cut out of rock.

Temples
• We have insufficient data on temple structures of
pre- Gupta period from excavations.
• The earliest known temples are one refered to at
– Jhandial (Taxila),
– the Sankarshana temple at Nagari (Rajasthan) and
– the temple at Besnagar (Madhya Pradesh)
• The Gupta age marked the beginning of temple
construction.
• It ushered in of a new epoch connected with the
growth and development of structural temples of
distinctive forms and styles and laid the foundation of
the typical styles of Indian temple architecture.

• Small flat-roofed platforms are
characteristics of the early Gupta period.
• Small, but elegant temple No. XVII at
Sanchi, Kankali temple at Tigawa, Vishnu
and Varaha temples at Eran and at Nachna
Kuthara in Madhya Pradesh are good
examples of early temple architecture.
• Gradually, these temples developed a
shikhara on the roof which came to be
adopted all over the country.
• Two best examples of this type are the
brick temple Bhitargaon in Kanpur and the
Dasavatara temple at Deogarh, both in the
Uttar Pradesh.

• The shape of shikhara i.e., the superstructure
above the sanctum-sanctorum containing the
images of deities marked the development of
two distinctive style viz.,
– northern Indian style (Nagar style) and
– south Indian style (Dravidian style).
At Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal we find temples
of both styles.

Shapes and Plans of Temples
• The sanctuary that is the main part is called the vimana where the
garbhagriha or the inner sanctum containing the main presiding
deity is located.
• The part surmounting the vimana is known as the shikhara.
• The other elements of ground plan are:
– mandapa or pavilion for the assembly of devotees;
– antarala, which is a vestibule connecting the vimana and mandapa
and the pradakshiapath, i.e. circumarnbulatory passage surrounding
these.
The natmandir or dance hall and bhogamandapa were evolved
subsequently in the Orissan temples such as the famous Sun temple
at Konarka, to add to the dignity and magnificence of the deities who
were honoured in them.
• Fundamentally, there is no structural similarity .

Major Styles of Temple Building in
India
Nagara
• the northern temple styles
• All of northern India, from
the foothills of the
Himalayas to the central
plateau of the Deccan is
furnished with temples in
the northern style.
Dravida
• southern temple styles
• confined to the region
specially between the Krishna
river and Kanyakumari.
• The earliest examples of
Dravidian style temple is the
rock-cut temple known as
Dharmaraja ratha at
Mamallapuram and structural
temples at Kanchi, known as
Kailasanatha and Vaikuntha
Perumal, all built by the
Pallava Kings.

• The exterior of the Nagara
type is characterized by
horizontal tiers, as in the
jagamohan or porch in front of
the sanctum of the Ligaraj
temple at Bhubaneswar, and
the viman, is usually circular in
plan.
• polygonal, often octagonal
shikhara and a pyramidal
vimana, which is rectangular
in plan.
• also notable for the towering
gopurams or gatetowers of
the additional mandapas.
• From the days of Ganesh ratha
of the Pallava times (seventh
ceniury) at Mahabalipuram
(near Madras) to the gigantic
Brihadishvara temple (c.985-
1012 A.D.) of the Cholas at
Thanjavur , the Dravida style
took many strides.

Nagara
• The Shikhara is curvilinear
• Pillars do not play important
role and are at times
conspicuous by their absence
• Tank is absent
• Enclosure absent
• In the vastusastra these
temples are called- Prasada
• These temples are divided into
triple vertical parts
Dravida
• The Sikhara is pyramidal
• Pillars play important part in
architecture
• Tank is an important element
• Enclosure are provided with
Gopurams
• These temples are called
Vimana
• These have six fold vertical
parts

Important Indian Temples
• Northern, Central and Western India (Fifth-
seventh centuries)
The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh (Jhansi
District); the brick temple at Bhitaragon
(Kanpur District)
• The Deccan and Central India (Sixth-eighth
centuries)
Cave temples at Ellora (near Aurangabad in
Maharashtra), Elephanta (near Bombay) and
Badarni (north Karnataka; Early Chalukyan
temples in north Karnataka at Badami, Aihole
(Ladkhan temples)
The Deccan and Tamil Nadu (Six-tenth centuries)
• Cave temples, the Rathas and the 'Shore'
temples of Pallavas at Mahabalipuram (near
Madras); Kailasanatha temple at
Kanchipuram (also near Madras); Chalukyan
strctures at Aihole and Badami ;the Kailas
temple at Ellora carved out under the
patronage of the RashtrakuJas,

• Western and Central India (Eighth -
thirteenth centuries)
Harihara and other temples at Osian
(North of Jodhpur, Rajasthan);
Chandella temples at Khajuraho
(specially, Lakshman, Kandariya
Mahadev and Vishvanatha); Sun
temple at Modhera (Gujarat) and
Marble temples of the Jains at Mt.
Abu (Rajasthan).
• Eastern India (Eighth - thirteenth
centuries)
Mukteshvar, Lingaraj and Rajarani
temples (all at Bhubaneshwar); Sun
temple at Konarka (Orissa) and the
jagannatha temple at Puri (Orissa).
• Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala
(Tenth century on wards)
• Brihadishvar temples of the Cholas at
Ganga kondacholapuram; Hoyshal
temples at Belur, Halebid and
Somnathpur (all in Karnataka); the
Shrirangam (near Trichinopoly, Tamil
Nadu) and Minakshi temples
(Madurai, Tamil Nadu)

• The Himalayan belt
(Eighth century
onwards)
• Sun temple at
Martand(8th Century);
temple at Masrur
(Kangara, Himachal
Pradesh) and
brahmanical temples in
Nepal (Kathmandu,
Patan and Bhadgaon).

One of the greatest achievements of the Nayaka period was the making of the
Meenakshi temple in Madurai, Tamil Nadu. It is as if the entire cosmos is
represented on the many walls of the temple structures.

The soaring gopurams of the temple,
which are visible from afar

Sculpture During Ancient Period/
Different School of Art
• Sculptural art cannot be separated from
architecture because sculptures form part of a
total complex like a Stupa or a Chaitya or a
temple.
• Mauryan period- several stone sculpture the
Yakshi and Yaksha (at Didarganj, Patna)
bearing the distinctive polish of the Mauryan
School are example of extraordinary
craftsmanship and are most attractive.

Sunga Art
• Bharhut , Sanchi etc.
• The artists mastered now the difficult technique and-
acquired a highly developed aesthetic sense.
• Stupas of Barhut and Sanchi were improved.
• Old wooden railings (of Mauryan time) of Sanchi stupa
was removed and substituted by stone railings and
gateways (toranas).
• Important events from Buddha’s life, Jataka and floral
designs have been skillfully carved on these gateways.
A stone caving of Yakshi holding Shalabanjika branches
of trees is strikingly beautiful.

JATAKA, TORANA, GREAT Stupa, Sanchi, 1st century A.D. The stories of the
Buddha's past lives illustrate the qualities of virtuous living. These carvings
are a rich record of the lifestyles of the period when they were made

Torana, Great Stupa, Sanchi. The finely carved
human and animal figures create a world of
grace

What is Shalabanjika?
For a bracket from a stupa gateway
: Sanchi • refers to the sculpture of a woman,
displaying stylized feminine
features, standing near a tree and
grasping a branch
• It represents female tree spirits
called yakshis. In an ancient Indian
fertility rite, beautiful young
maidens were said to usher in
spring by kicking a tree trunk while
breaking off a branch, so as to
arouse it into blossoming. The type
of tree spirit shown here, known as
Shalabhanjika Yakshi (literally, the
yakshi who is breaking a branch of
the Shala tree) echoes this
tradition.

Amravati School
• A school of sculpture developed in the lower Godavari
valley under Satavahanas.
• The extant remains consist of many fine, ornate pieces of
the great stupa of Amravati.
• The bas-relief medallions and paneled fences made of
white limestone depict events from the Buddha’s life and
the Jatakas (the famous one, depicting the story of the
taming of elephant by the Buddha).
• The figures represented in different poses and curves
convey intense vitality and sense of rapid
movement.Besides the later South Indian sculptures, the
influence of this school were also felt in Ceylon and S.E.
Asia.

What is bas-relief?
bas-relief
• A low relief is a projecting
image with a shallow overall
depth, for example used on
coins, on which all images are
in low relief.
• In the lowest reliefs the
relative depth of the elements
shown is completely distorted,
and if seen from the side the
image makes no sense, but
from the front the small
variations in depth register as
a three-dimensional image.

Gandhara School of Art
• Gandhara is located in the north-western part of the Indian sub-continent.
• The Greeks, Mauryas, Sakas, Pahlavas and Kusanas occupied it. As a result, this
place produced a mixed culture.
• Here Indian craftsmen in contact with the Greeks and Romans and Central Asians
worked in unison under the inspiration of the new devotional Buddhism
(Mahayanism).
• Its art, which was mainly Buddhist, was profoundly influenced by Hellenistic art.
• They produced in stucco (plasters) and stone (a kind of black stone) a large
number of images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas and also votive plaques (relief
sculpture). The latter depicted scenes from the Buddha's life and the Jatakas.
• The Greeco-Roman style modeled the images laying stress on accuracy of
anatomic details and physical beauty (delineation of muscles, addition of
moustaches, thick transparent drapery with large and bold fold lines).
• Famous for grace and realism this school influenced Matura School and also
Chinese and Japanese plastic art.

• The main centres from
where the art pieces of
Gandhara School have
been found are
Jalalabad, Bamaran,
Begram and Taxila.

This statue is typically Gandharan in style with its
long, flowing drapery with heavy schematic folds.

Mathura School of Art
• The origin of Mathura art form is traced back to the second century BCE. this school produced a
variety of sculptures and other pieces of art for the followers of Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical
faiths.
• It was primarily an indigenous Jaina school of free standing sculpture centered at Mathura.
• From the beginning of the Christian era it came under the patronage of the Kushanas.
• A significant dimension of Mathura art is that it also produced images of kings and other notables.
• It produced in white spotted red sandstone beautiful figures of the Buddha and the Bodhisattvas
and the Tirthankaras.
• At the same time what they were creating, from local red stone, were uniquely of Mathura.
• Other striking remains consist of votive plaques showing cross-legged naked figure of a Tirthankara
in meditation, graceful and provocative Yakshi and Kushana Royal statues The votive pillars from
'KankaliTila demonstrate how feminine beauty has been utilised by the sculptor.
• The themes handled by the Mathura artists are in fact many, and, as in Sanchi and Bharhut, the
artist chose elements from nature to enrich his creation.
• The earliest images of Bodhisattvas and Buddha were perhaps made at Mathura.
• The symbolism and iconographic forms of Mathura was later adopted in the Gupta School, which
produced some of the greatest Indian religious sculpture.

Emperor Kanishka, Kushana period, 1st century CE. The Kushanas were the
first Indian kings to have portraits of themselves made.

Mauryan Art
• Ancient Indian Art made remarkable progress
during Mauryan period.
• Stone masonry was introduced on a wide
scale; caves were hewed out from rocks.
• Pillars,
• stupas,
caves together with the figural images are
important products of the Mauryan art.

Pillars:
• They were uniformly styled,
monolithic (grey Chunar
sandstone), highly polished
(silicious varnish) and
gracefully proportioned
(spherical column tapering
slightly towards top) often
covered with realistically
modelled sculpture (animal
figures, lion, bulls etc.), free
standing set up throughout
the length and breadth of the
country, the most impressive
ones being at Sarnath, Lauriya
Rampurva and Lauriya
Nandangarh.

Asoka pillar, Vaishali. Pillars with highly polished surfaces were
erected by Emperor Asoka

Lion capital, Sarnath .This was the capital of the Asoka pillar at Sarnath. The
four lions face the cardinal directions to indicate the spread of "dharma".
They are stylised, indicating the influence of Persian art.

Stupas:
• They were tumulus-like structure containing relics of
the Buddha and Bodhisattavas and other buddhist
saints. Buddhist tradition testify 84,000 of them build
by Ashoka, some of which was later enlarged and
enclosed.
• The masterpiece, Sanchi stupa, was brick built, thickly
plastered, crowned by an umbrella of stone, and
fenced. Later, stone railings and lively & beautifully
carved gateways were added to it. All these depicted
events from the life of Buddha (symbolic depiction)
and Jatakas, landscape of trees and floral designs,
group of animals and birds and beautiful figures of
Yakshas and Yakshinis.

Caves:
• The earliest examples of rock-cut cave
architecture are the Barabar caves (Barabar
Hills, Gaya, donated by Ashoka to Ajivikas) and
the Nagarjuna caves (donated by Dasaratha)
which set the tradition for the later periods.

AJIVIKA CAVES, 3RD century B.C., Barabar,
Bihar. These are the earliest rock-cut caves in
northern India. The chaitya arch is an imitation
of the bent-wood architecture of the period.

BARABAR CAVES, BIHAR. Emperor Asoka and his grandson Dasratha made rock-cut
caves for ascetics of the Ajivika sect, in the 3rd century B.C. One can see here the
imitation of wooden architecture in the decorative arch made above the entrance.
This became a constant feature (now known as the chaitya arch) in the worship halls
of the Buddhist and Jaina faiths. It also continued as the decorative motif in later
Hindu temples. The marvellous tradition of hundreds of rock-cut caves in India was
initiated at Barabar.

Figure Images:
• We have on record two headless metal
torsoes (Patna), the earliest known sculpture
of the Tirathankaras. Of the several stone
sculpture the Yakshi and Yaksha (at Didarganj,
Patna) bears the distinctive polish of the
Mauryan school.

Asokan Edicts:
(a) 14 Major Rock Edicts found at eight places namely, Kalsi,
Mansehra, Shabbazgarti, Girnar, Sopara, Yerragudi, Dhauli
and Jaugada.
(b) Minor Rock Edicts : have been found at fourteen places.
(c) Two Kalinga Edicts have been found at Dhauli and
Jaugada.
(d)Seven Pillar Edicts: Seven pillar edicts found at Allahabad,
Delhi-Topara, Delhi-Meerut, Lauriya-Areraja, Lauriya-
Nandangarh and Rampurva.
• Three cave inscriptions at the Barabar caves near Gaya in
Bihar.

Pallava Arts
• The history of Dravida architecture and sculpture begins with the Pallavas
(600-800 A.D).
• Both rock-cut and structural (put up independently and not hewn out of
any rock) monuments are the significant specimens of the Pallava art.
• Pallavas created three rock-cut types of monuments viz.,
– the mandapas (i.e. the rock cut caves),
– the rathams (i.e. the monolithic temples) and
– the tirtham (i.e., the magnificent open air carving in relief).
• The mandapas (akin to the Buddhist cave - shrines) at Mahabalipuram
have finely carved pillars and panels.
• The panel 'Descent of the Ganga; is a unique piece of rock-cut sculpture.

"Chauri" Bearer from Didarganj, near Patna.This is the best known figurative
sculpture of Maurya times. The high polish is typical of Mauryan art

'Ratha' Cave Temple
• The magnificent 'Ratha' cave temples of Mahabalipuram was built by the
Pallava king Narsimha in the 7th and 8th centuries
• . It is known especially for its rathas (temples in the form of chariots),
mandapas (cave sanctuaries), giant open-air reliefs such as the famous
'Descent of the Ganges‘ etc.
• There are eight rathas at Mahabalipuram, out of which five are named
after the 'Pandavas' (five brothers) of Mahabharata and one after
Draupadi.
• The five rathas that can be seen are Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha,
Arjuna Ratha, Draupadi Ratha and Nakul Sahadev Ratha.
• They are constructed on the style of the Buddhist viharas and chaityas.
• The unfinished three-storey Dharmaraja ratha is the largest.
• The Draupadi ratha is the smallest, it is one-storeyed and has an
interesting thatch-like roof.
• The Arjuna and Draupadi rathas are dedicated to Shiva and Durga
respectively.

General view of the Monolithic temples, known
as Five Rathas, From left to right: Draupadi,
Nakula-Sahadeva, Bhima and Dharmaraja
Rathas

• The most famous of the stone temples are the
rathas (i.e., Shrine carved out of a single rock,
and looks like a 'structural temple') named
after the Pandavas at, Mahabalipuram
(Narshimavarman, 7th century A.D) each of
different size and shape.

structural temples- Pallavas
• The earliest stone structural temples were built up at
Mahabalipuram (the Shore temple) and Kanchi (the
Kailashnath temple and Vaikunthaperumal temple).
The Kailashnath temple is noted for its lovely vimana
and the numerous Natraja panels. Moreover, it
incorporates all the characteristics of the later matured
Dravida style, viz., pyramidal tower, pillared hall and
vestibule al! enclosed by a wall surmounted by cupolas
(ideas of elaborate gopuram already taking shape). The
Vaikunthaperurnal temple is noted for its vimana & the
series of panels depicting the dynastic history:

SHORE TEMPLE, 8TH century. It is one of the finest examples of Indian
structural stone temples. The Nandis along the outer wall seem to greet and
invite one into the sacred space within.

Kailasanatha temple, Kancheepuram, 8th century. One of the most beautiful
temples in India, it has well-balanced proportions and is sculpted with
exquisite detail, almost like a jewel box. It also marks a turning point, for it
is from this instance that direct patronage and close involvement of rulers
are seen in the making of Indic temples.

Ambulatory, Vaikunthaperumal
Temple, Kancheepuram, 8th century

• The pallava sculpture differs chiefly from that
of the Gupta's in the great slenderness and
free movements of the forms, more oval face
and higher cheekbones and in the
representation of animals this excels all
others.

Chalukyan Art: Vasara Style
• The temple architecture in Deccan got a boost in the 7th
century under the chalukyas of Badami. The numerous
temples that were erected at Aihole (70 temples now in
ruins) and adjacent Badami and Pattadakal show a
juxtaposition of the Nagara and Dravida (Shikhara) style.
• Pattadakal has ten temples (7-8th century) the most
celebrated of which being the Papanatha temple and the
Virupaksha temple - the former with a low and stunted
tower in the Nagara style and the latter with a very high
and storied tower constructed in purely Dravida style. This
admixture of ideas later evolved into a hybrid 'Vasara Style
• The temple walls are adorned with beautiful pieces of
sculpture representing scene from the Ramayana.

The red sandstone cliffs of Badami in Karnataka offered a spectacular
setting for the excavation of four caves, three Hindu and one Jaina, in the
6th century A.D. during the rule of the Chalukyas.

Rashtrakuta Art
• . The early tradition of rock-cut architecture which had started
under Satvahanas reached its zenith at Ellora under Rastrakutas
(who supplanted the Chalukyas in Deccan). Of all the rock cut
architecture during any period, the great Kailash temple at Ellora
(dedicated to Siva, built in 8th century by Krishna I) is a supreme
and unique achievement. It is the largest and the most splendid
rock monument (described as the world's greatest rock poem)
reproducing the intricacies of a structural temple in fullest details. It
also stands as the most outstanding example of the Dravida
conception and composition:
• Besides Ellora, the frescoes in Ajanta caves, and a rock cut cave
shrine at Elephanta with its gigantic (5.4 m) image of Mahesh,
'Trimurti' (a Shaivite trinity-three faces showing three different
aspects of Shiva as creator, preserver and destroyer) are also among
the most magnificent art creation of India belonging to this period.

Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, 6th to 10th century A.D.
These Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina caves lie on the trade
route from Paithan to Ujjain in central India

KAILASANATHA TEMPLE, CAVE 16. The grand climax of rock-cut architecture
in India was the making of this temple. It is a vast multi-storey structure,
carved inside and outside, made out of the heart of a rock.

Pala Art (Nalanda Art)
• Primarily a Buddhist ‘school of plastic art, it developed under the
Palas and Senas of Bengal and Bihar between 8th - 12th centuries
with its main centre at Nalanda (Bihar). The icons, both Buddhist
and Hindu, made in the local black basalt / granite are much
decoratively carved with the fine finish imparting the characteristic
metallic luster, are found at Nalanda, Rajagriha. Bodhgaya and
Mayurbhanj. The Buddha is shown as a king in his majestic glory
and not as a yogi. Crown studded with Jewels, precise and clear
carving, soft and fleshy treatment of the body are some of the
special features.
• Ichnographically three stages of this school are recognised.
Mahayana phase of Buddha and Bodhisattva images, Sahajayans
images, and finally the Kalahari of the Kapalika system.

THE BUDDHA, NALANDA, late-6th/early-7th century
A.D. This dynamic outlook is represented in the
changing styles of art, from the post-Gupta period
onwards.

A section of the Nalanda Mahavihara. The
qualities of Buddhahood were personified in
the vibrant style of art that was created in the
university's intellectual atmosphere.

Chandella Art
• The Chandelles of central India (Bundelkhand region) built main
temples at Khajuraho (out of total 85, only 20 survive) during A.D
850 - 1125.
• They are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Jain Tirthankaras. The
underlying plan of these temples of 'nagara style' consist of the
ardhamandaps (an entrance porch), the mandaps (the assembly
halt), the antarala (the vestibule) and the garbha griha (the
sanctum).
• The temple rest on an open platform (which itself is on an unusually
high but decorated basement storey), a feature peculiar to
Khajuraho, with subsidiary shrine at the four corners of the
platform in the bigger temples. The central zone, the wall portion,
contains most of the sculpture in 2 or 3 tier in a variety of planes.
Topping the central zone is a series of graded peaks called Shikhars,
straining to achieve the scaring effect of a mountain range. The
tallest of these always over the sanctum

• is invariably curvilinear (Nagara style) and ends in a symbolic Kalash over
an amalak (a ribbed ring of stone).
• As in other Indian medieval, Temple at Khajuraho too architecture and
sculpture achieve a perfect fusion. The figures that adorn the temples
walls are masterpieces' of medieval sculpture. Exhibiting an exuberant and
sensuous delight in the human form and the many moods of women, they
combine the classical and medieval traditions in a rare perfection. The
erotic sculpture depicting all the varied emotions from romantic love to
the ecstasy of sexual passion are however never titillating.
• Some important. Temples are:-.
• * Kandriya Mahadev temple: It is the largest, best preserved and
architecturally the most evolved and contains the largest number of
sculptures though few erotic.
• * Lakshamana Temple: It has the largest number of erotics, both romantic
and orgiastic.
• * Vishvanath temple: contains some of the most lyrical images of women.

The Lakshmana Temple of the 10th century. The
shikharas of the temples at Khajuraho resemble the
rising peaks of a mountain range.

The largest and most magnificent temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya
Mahadeva, dedicated to Siva. It was probably constructed by King Vidyadhara
between A.D. 1017 and A.D. 1029.

Brahma, Adinath temple, Khajuraho. The Hindu and Jaina temples in
Khajuraho, the capital of the Chandella kings from the early 10th to the 12th
century, have a shared style that has no sectarian differences. In fact, there is
a profuse depiction of Hindu deities on the walls of the Jaina temples here.

Chola Art
• The Dravida style of the modest Pal lava Shrine climaxed under imperial Cholas (of
A.D 850-1200) with the horizontal elaboration and magnification of the temple
complex adding to the architectural grandeur.
• The vimana reached to towering heights and impressive size and pillared halls,
enclosures with subsidiary shrines and gopuram were added to the temple
complex. Of the two great Dravidian creations, the Brihadeshwara temple at
Tanjore and the Gangaikondacholapuram temple, the former (built by Raja) have a
65 meters high vimana, the grace and grandeur of which is par excellence. The
pillared halls, one of it having various dance postures from the Natyashastra
sculptured on it, are fine specimen of Chola art. The walls of the inner shrine
contains numerous fine fresco paintings on religious themes.
• Art of sculpture also evolved to reach a high water mark. Iconic in conception and
execution it portrays Siva's various form (as the destroyer of evil) and Vishnu
avtars. Chola Bronze sculpture casted by the lost wax process (the cire Perdue
technique) and known for its aesthetic impact is best representative in the image
of Nataraja. Its grandeur of composition, its symbolism, its artistic excellence and
its charm is the connoisseur's attraction world wide. Chola Stone sculpture done in
high relief has delicate outline and depicts divinity in terms of a super human type.

Brihadisvara temple, Thanjavur. The building of this temple,
one of the grandest in all of India

The Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram was made by King
Rajaraja's son Rajendra I. Though not as tall as the Brihadisvara temple at
Thanjavur, this is another magnificent structure.

Pandaya Art
• During Pandavas the Dravida style further
evolved towards its climax. The Pandaya temples
at Kanchi & Madurai have high outer walls with
enterance gateways topped by gopurams.
Attention was now concentrated on the gopuram
rather than the vimana / shikhar above the main
shrine. The artistic glory of the gopuram became
so popular that it became a special characteristic
of south Indian temples, (the gopurams of Kanchi
and Madurai temples can be seen from long
distance because of their elevation and
dimension).

Vijaynagar art
• The remains of Vijaynagar show the past magnificence in
architecture & sculpture. The Hindu resurgence is reflected in the
large number of temples, built in Dravida style with some typical
improvisation. The best examples are the Hazara Rama Temple and
the Vithalaswami temple.
• The prominent features are addition of Kalyanmandapa (a large
ornate pillared hall) and pavallion, towering gateways, varied and
artistic treatment of pillars and intricate carvings.
• The Hazara Rama Temple is modest but one of the most perfectly
finished extant specimen of Hindu temple architecture. The
Vithalaswami temple (planned on a grandiose scale but never
completed) shows the extreme limits in florid magnificence of the
Vijaynagar style. The Velour temple has the Kalyana Mandapa in its
richest and most beautiful form. Other examples are found at
Kumbakonam, Kanchipuram, Srirangam, Rameshwaram and
Lepakshi.

• At Lepakshi one notable structure is the Hall of Dance and the pillar
decoration of the Virabhadra temple there shows the typical sculpture's
device of creating motif in which part of one object figure was
incorporated into the design of another The literary evidences regarding
the city of Vijaynagar and its palace are also very impressive (as large as
Rome, seven concentric fortifications) The Nayakas who rose on the fall of
the Vijaynagar empire furthered, the artistic traditions of Vijaynagar.
• The most famous architectural landmark of the age is the Meenakshi
Temple at Madurai (in fact it refers to the Great temple complex with two
Shrines dedicated to Siva and his consort in the form of goddess
Meenakhsi). Virtually every space in this structure is filled with surface
carvings of niches, pilasters and other forms. A major contribution of the
Nayaka artists was the building of 'prakarams' (roofed ambulatory
passageways) of subsidiary shrines. The spire 40m in height curved and
having a rounded top is very impressive:

In the thousand-pillared hall of the
Meenakshi temple.

A stone representation of a grand ceremonial ratha stands in
the courtyard of the Vitthala temple. It is one of the best-
known images of Hampi.

• The conception of the temple is remarkable.
It is as if the temple were a ratha drawn on
large wheels by horses.
• Surya is one of the earliest deities of Indic
art. The first known representation is
probably the one at the Bhaja caves of
western India, of the 2nd century B.C.
• The spokes of the temple’s wheels present a
multitude of images of the world.

Rearing lions at the temple’s entrance. The entrances to sacred
spaces have majestic animals.

Hoysala Art
• A new style of architecture was developed under Hoysalas (who
succeeded the later chalukyas) in the Mysore plateau (Southern
Kacnatka) by 12th -13th A.D. Typical Hoysalas features are polygonal
(star shaped) rather than square plan, high plinth which offers the
windings of temples a huge length of vacant space to be elaborately
carved with sculptures, & low pyramidal Sikhars.
• The best known example of the Hoysala style is the Hoysalesvara
temple of Halebid. The '5'-'6' feet high terrace covered with stone
slabs is intricately ornamented in a succession of friezes (seven
hundred feet each' or more in length).
• The delicate and minute carvings of Hoysala temples is their most
attractive feature. Done on close textured chloritic schist, they
achieve the effect of sandalwood and ivory carving and reproduce
the infinite variety of ornamental decoration.

THE HOYSALESVARA TEMPLE was built between A.D.
1121 and A.D. 1160 in the area of Halebid, known
then as Dorasamudra. It was the capital of the
Hoysalas.

Southern entrance, Hoysalesvara
temple, Halebid, Karnataka.

The walls of the Hoysalesvara temple have the most
profusely decorative sculptures of deities.

• The Temples of Orissa
• A series of temple in chaste Nagara style were built at
Bhuabneshwar, Konark and Puri from 8th - 13th
century. The specific features include curvilinear Nagra
(Shikhara) on the main Sanctuary and a series of
pyramidal storey, no pillars, profusely ornated outer
wall (the lavish exterior decoration is in contrast to
Chandella temple except the Mukteshwar Shrine of
Bhubaneshwar) and roofs partly supported by iron
girders (technical innovation). The Ling raja temple at
Bhubaneshwar located in an extensive area is known
for its magnificence.

Lingaraja temple, Bhubaneswar.

Mukteswara Temple, Bhubaneswar, 10th century A.D. This temple
represents the full development of the Orissa temple form in its "deul", or
tower, and "jagmohan", or hall. Both structures as well as the "torana"
entrance are profusely carved.

In the mid-13th century, a grand temple dedicated to Surya,
the sun, was built at Konark. It was built by King
Narasimhamahadeva I of the Ganga dynasty.

Important Terminologies
• Abhaya mudra: a hand gesture with right hand upraised and open palm signifying
protection.
• Aniconic: Where divine presence is suggested by symbols.
• Apsidal: a rectangular chamber with a circular ending.
• Avadana: stories relating to the life of Buddha
• Bhagavata cult: based on the worship of Vishnu Vasudeva
• Bodhi grihas: shrine surrounding a bodhi tree
• Bodhisattva: these represent enlightened beings who refused to enter into the
state of nirvana or salvation for themselves so that they could transfer the merit
onto others.
• Chaitya: an object that acts as s focus for worship: the term is sometimes used by
itself for the hall housing the chaitya or for a barrel vaulted window motif
based on the hall type.
• Dharmachakra mudra: a hand gesture signifying the turning of the ‘Wheel of law’
by the Buddha by preaching the first sermon at Sarnath.
• Dharmachakra: Buddhist ‘Wheel of Law’
• Dhyana mudra: a yogic posture.

• Mahayana Buddhism: a branch of Buddhism that came into prominence after the
beginning of the Christian era that advocates the transference of merit,
prajanaparamita .
• Mudra: A hand gesture
• Naga cult: based on the worship of local snake deities such as Erapata naga with
independent sculptures of many hooded Naga and Nagini figures.
• Pancharatra: an esoteric doctrine of the Vaisnavas centering on Vishvarupa form
of Vishnu.
• Shaiva: affiliated and related to Shiva
• Shalabhanjika: a sculpture showing a woman with a tree, holding or bending its
branch
• Stupa; is solid funerary mound constructed of brick and masonry and often with
sculpted stone panels attached to them. In a tiny chamber at the heart of the
mould, contained in a casket are the ashes of the Buddha or a Buddhist dignitary.
• Triratna: three Jewels representing Buddha, Dharma and Samgha
• Vaishnava: affiliated to or relating to Vishnu
• viharas: a monastic institution

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