2. 2 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of
the Nile River, situated in the place that is now the country Egypt. The history of ancient Egypt
occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Inter-
mediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle
Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.
Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New Kingdom, ruling much of Nubia and a sizable
portion of the Near East, after which it entered a period of slow decline.
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions
of the Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the
fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social develop-
ment and culture.
Ancient Egypt
Early Dynastic Period 3150–2686
BC
Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC
1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055
BC
Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC
2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550
BC
New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC
3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664
BC
Late Period 664–332 BC
Greco-Roman Egypt
Argead Dynasty 332–310 BC
Ptolemaic dynasties 310–30 BC
Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30
BC–641 AD
Sasanian Egypt 619–629
Medieval Egypt
Rashidun Egypt 641–661
Umayyad Egypt 661–750
Abbasid Egypt 750–935
Tulunid dynasty 868–905
Ikhshidid dynasty 935–969
Fatimid dynasty 969–1171
Ayyubid dynasty 1171–1250
Mamluk dynasties 1250–1517
Early modern Egypt
Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867
French occupation 1798–1801
Muhammad Ali dynasty 1805–1953
Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914
Ancient Egyptian Religion
The religion of Ancient Egypt lasted for more than 3,000 years, and was polytheistic, meaning there were a multitude of deities, who
were believed to reside within and control the forces of nature. The complexity of the religion was evident as some deities existed in
different manifestations and had multiple mythological roles. The pantheon included gods with major roles in the universe, minor
deities (or “demons”), foreign gods, and sometimes humans, including deceased Pharaohs.
TERMS:
• Ma’at: The Egyptian universe.
• Heka: The ability to use natural forces to create “magic.”
• Pantheon: The core actors of a religion.
• Polytheistic: A religion with more than one worshipped god.
• Ka: The spiritual part of an individual human being or God that survived after death.
• Duat: The realm of the dead; residence of Osiris.
• Ba: The spiritual characteristics of an individual person that remained in the body after
death. Ba could unite with the ka.
• Akh: The combination of the ka and ba living in the afterlife.
3. 3
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
1) Predynastic period:
In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate
was much less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were
covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing un-
gulates. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and
this is also the period when many animals were first domesti-
cated. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern)
Egypt was the Badarian culture, which probably originated in
the Western Desert; it was known for its high-quality ceramics,
stone tools, and its use of copper. . Over a period of about 1,000
years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming
communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in
complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley.
A typical Naqada II jar decorated with gazelles. (Predynastic Period)
2) Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150–2686 BC):
The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to
the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia and
of ancient Elam. The third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho
grouped the long line of kings from Menes to his own time into
30 dynasties, a system still used today. . The strong institution
of kingship developed by the kings served to legitimize state
control over the land, labour, and resources that were essen-
tial to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.
The Narmer Palette depicts the unification of the Two Lands.
3) Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC):
Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made
during the Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultur-
al productivity and resulting population, made possible by a
well-developed central administration. Some of ancient Egypt’s
crowning achievements, the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx,
were constructed during the Old Kingdom. . Under the direc-
tion of the vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irri-
gation projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to work
on construction projects, and established a justice system to
maintain peace and order. Kings also made land grants to their
mortuary cults and local temples, to ensure that these institu-
tions had the resources to worship the king after his death.
4) First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC):
After Egypt’s central government collapsed at the end of the
Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support
or stabilize the country’s economy. Regional governors could
not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensu-
ing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines
and small-scale civil wars. . They inaugurated a period of eco-
nomic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom.
Khafre enthroned
5) Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC):
The kings of the Middle Kingdom restored the country’s stabil-
ity and prosperity, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, liter-
ature, and monumental building projects. The last great ruler of
the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat III, allowed Semitic-speak-
ing Canaanite settlers from the Near East into the Delta region
to provide a sufficient labour force for his especially active min-
ing and building campaigns.
Amenemhat III, the last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom
6) Second Intermediate Period (1674–1549 BC) and the Hyksos
Around 1785 BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom kings
weakened, a Western Asian people called the Hyksos, who had
already settled in the Delta, seized control of Egypt and estab-
lished their capital at Avaris, forcing the former central govern-
ment to retreat to Thebes.
7) New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC):
The New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprece-
dented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening
diplomatic ties with their Neighbours, including the Mitanni
Empire, Assyria, and Canaan. Military campaigns waged under
Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III extended the influ-
ence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen.
Beginning with Merneptah the rulers of Egypt adopted the title
of pharaoh.
4. 4 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
The maximum territorial extent of ancient Egypt (circa 1450 BC)
8) Third Intermediate Period (1069–653 BC):
Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in
945 BC, founding the so-called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that
would rule for some 200 years. Around 727 BC the Kushite king
Piye invaded northward, seizing control of Thebes and even-
tually the Delta, which established the 25th Dynasty. During
the 25th Dynasty, Pharaoh Taharqa created an empire nearly as
large as the New Kingdom’s.
25th Dynasty black pharaohs and kings. From left to right: Tantamani,
Taharqa (rear), Senkamanisken, again Tantamani (rear), Aspelta,
Anlamani, again Senkamanisken. Kerma Museum.
9) Late Period (653–332 BC):
The Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who be-
came known as the Saite kings of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. By
653 BC, the Saite king Psamtik I was able to oust the Assyrians
with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form
Egypt’s first navy. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt,
also known as the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty, ended in 402 BC,
when Egypt regained independence under a series of native dy-
nasties.
Assyrian siege of an Egyptian fortified city, a scene from the Assyr-
ian conquest of Egypt, probably referring to the capture of Memphis
in 667 BC. Sculpted in 645–635 BC, under Ashurbanipal. British
Museum
10) Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC):
In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little re-
sistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians
as a deliverer. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hel-
lenistic rule, and became a seat of learning and culture, centered
at the famous Library of Alexandria.
The religion of Ancient Egypt lasted for more than 3,000 years, and was polytheistic, meaning
there were a multitude of deities, who were believed to reside within and control the forces of
nature.
The most important myth was of Osiris and Isis. The divine ruler Osiris was murdered by Set
(god of chaos), then resurrected by his sister and wife Isis to conceive an heir, Horus. Osiris
then became the ruler of the dead, while Horus eventually avenged his father and became king.
Templeswerethestate’smethodofsustainingthegods,sincetheirphysicalimageswerehoused
and cared for; temples were not a place for the average person to worship.
Certain animals were worshipped and mummified as representatives of gods.
5. 5
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Cosmology
• The Egyptian universe centred on Ma’at, which has several meanings in English, including truth,
justice and order.
• It was fixed and eternal (without it the world would fall apart), and there were constant threats of
disorder requiring society to work to maintain it.
• Inhabitants of the cosmos included the gods, the spirits of deceased humans, and living humans,
the most important of which was the pharaoh.
• Humans should cooperate to achieve this, and gods should function in balance. Ma’at was re-
newed by periodic events, such as the annual Nile flood, which echoed the original creation.
• Most important of these was the daily journey of the sun god Ra.
• Egyptians saw the earth as flat land (the god Geb), over which arched the sky (goddess Nut); they
were separated by Shu, the god of air.
• Underneath the earth was a parallel underworld and undersky, and beyond the skies lay Nu, the
chaos before creation.
• Duat was a mysterious area associated with death and rebirth, and each day Ra passed through
Duat after traveling over the earth during the day.
Egyptian Cosmology. In this artwork, the air god Shu is assisted by other gods in
holding up Nut, the sky, as Geb, the earth, lies beneath.
Myths
Egyptian myths are mainly known from hymns, ritual and magical texts, funerary texts,
and the writings of Greeks and Romans.
The creation myth saw the world as emerging as a dry space in the primordial ocean of
chaos, marked by the first rising of Ra.
Other forms of the myth saw the primordial god Atum transforming into the elements
of the world, and the creative speech of the intellectual god Ptah.
The most important myth was of Osiris and Isis.
The divine ruler Osiris was murdered by Set (god of chaos), then resurrected by his sister
and wife Isis to conceive an heir, Horus. Osiris then became the ruler of the dead, while
Horus eventually avenged his father and became king.
This myth set the Pharaohs, and their succession, as orderliness against chaos.
The Afterlife
Egyptians were very concerned about the fate of their souls after death, and built tombs,
created grave goods and gave offerings to preserve the bodies and spirits of the dead.
They believed humans possessed ka, or life-force, which left the body at death.
To endure after death, the ka must continue to receive offerings of food; it could con-
sume the spiritual essence of it.
Humans also possessed a ba, a set of spiritual characteristics unique to each person,
which remained in the body after death.
Funeral rites were meant to release the ba so it could move, rejoin with the ka, and live on
as an akh. However, the ba returned to the body at night, so the body must be preserved.
Mummification involved elaborate embalming practices, and wrapping in cloth, along
with various rites, including the Opening of the Mouth ceremony.
Tombs were originally mastabas (rectangular brick structures), and then pyramids.
6. 6 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Funerary Text. In this section from the Book of the Dead
for the scribe Hunefer, the Weighing of the Heart is shown.
Rise And Fall Of Gods
Certain gods gained a primary status over time, and then fell as other gods
overtook them. These included the sun god Ra, the creator god Amun, and
the mother goddess Isis. There was even a period of time where Egypt
was monotheistic, under Pharaoh Akhenaten, and his patron god Aten.
The Relationships Of Deities
Just as the forces of nature had complex in-
terrelationships, so did Egyptian deities. Mi-
nor deities might be linked, or deities might
come together based on the meaning of numbers
in Egyptian mythology (i.e., pairs represented
duality). Deities might also be linked through
syncretism, creating a composite deity.
Artistic Depictions Of Gods
Artistic a of gods were not literal rep-
resentations, since their true nature was
considered mysterious. However, symbol-
ic aa funerary god, who was shown as a
jackal to counter its traditional meaning as
a scavenger, and create protection for the
mummy.
Temples
Temples were the state’s method of sustaining the gods, as their physical images were housed and cared for; they were not a place for the
average person to worship. They were both mortuary temples to serve deceased pharaohs and temples for patron gods. Starting as simple
structures, they grew more elaborate, and were increasingly built from stone, with a common plan. Ritual duties were normally carried out
by priests, or government officials serving in the role. In the New Kingdom, professional priesthood became common, and their wealth
rivaled that of the pharaoh
Rituals And Festivals
Aside from numerous temple rituals, including the morning
offering ceremony and re-enactments of myths, there were cor-
onation ceremonies and the sed festival, a renewal of the pha-
raoh’s strength during his reign. The Opet arying the god’s
image to visit other significant sites.
Animal Worship
At many sites, Egyptians worshipped spe-
cific animals that they believed to be mani-
festations of deities. Examples include the
Apis bull (of the god Ptah), and a
7. 7
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Ancient Egyptian Architecture:
Spanning over two thousand years, ancient Egypt was not one stable civilization but in constant change and upheaval, commonly split into
periods by historians. Likewise, ancient Egyptian architecture is not one style, but a set of styles differing over time but with some com-
monalities. Most buildings were built of locally available mud brick and limestone by levied workers. Monumental buildings were built via the
post and lintel method of construction. Many buildings were aligned astronomically. Columns were typically adorned with capitals decorated
to resemble plants important to Egyptian civilization, such as the papyrus plant. Ancient Egyptian architectural motifs have influenced ar-
chitecture elsewhere, reaching the wider world first during the Orientalizing period and again during the nineteenth-century Egyptomania.
Characteristics:
As early as 2600 BC the architect Imhotep made use of stone columns whose surface
was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds, like papyrus, lotus and palm; in
later Egyptian architecture faceted cylinders were also common. Their form is thought
to derive from archaic reed-built shrines. Carved from stone, the columns were highly
decorated with carved and painted hieroglyphs, texts, ritual imagery and natural motifs.
Egyptian columns are famously present in the Great Hypostyle Hall of Karnak (circa
1224 BC), where 134 columns are lined up in 16 rows, with some columns reaching
heights of 24 metres.
Ancient Egyptian houses were made out of mud collected from the damp banks of the
Nile river. It was placed in moulds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use in
construction.
Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious monuments,[5] massive structures
characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings, possibly echoing a method of
construction used to obtain stability in mud walls.
Exterior and interior walls, as well as the columns and piers, were covered with hiero-
glyphic and pictorial frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant colors
An Egyptian composite capital which
is still colored, at the Temple of Kh-
num (Esna, Egypt) Columns of the Great Hypostyle Hall from the
Temple of Karnak (c. 1294-1213 BC)
Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2589-2566 BC)
8. 8 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Columns
One of the most important type are the papyriform
columns. The origin of these columns goes back to the 5th Dy-
nasty. They are composed of lotus (papyrus) stems which are
drawn together into a bundle decorated with bands: the capital,
instead of opening out into the shape of a bellflower, swells out
and then narrows again like a flower in bud. The base, which
tapers to take the shape of a half-sphere like the stem of the lo-
tus, has a continuously recurring decoration of stipules. At the
Luxor Temple, the columns are reminiscent of papyrus bun-
dles, perhaps symbolic of the marsh from which the ancient
Egyptians believed the creation of the world to have unfolded.
Illustration of papyriform capi-
tals, in The Grammar of Orna-
ment
Illustration of 9 types of cap-
itals, from The Grammar of
Ornament, drawn in 1856 by
Owen Jones
Columns with Hathoric capitals, at the Temple
of Isis from island Philae
Egyptian composite columns from Philae
Papyriform columns in the Luxor Temple
Composite papyrus capital; 380–343 BC;
painted sandstone; height: 126 cm; Metropoli-
tan Museum of Art (New York City)
Fragment of a column with
a Hathor capital; 380–362
BC; limestone; height: 102
cm; Metropolitan Museum
of Art
Fragments of a palm column;
2353–2323 BC; granite;
diameter beneath the ropes
of the neck 80.85 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art
9. 9
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
TOMBS
The first royal tombs, called mastabas, were built at Abydos during the first and second dynasties. The tombs were surround-
ed by a large number of graves of women and dwarves. These people may have been servants of the kings who were sacrificed
to serve them in their afterlife.
Pyramids were built as royal burials until 1640 B.C. The most famous is the Great Pyramid at Giza. To prevent robbery, the
kings, queens and nobles of the New Kingdom built their tombs in a remote valley west of the Theban capital known as the
Valley of the Kings. The tombs of Egypt are one of the greatest tourist attractions in the world. They are indeed a world trea-
sure!
Mastaba Tombs
Mastaba tombs surround the pyramids of the Old Kingdom. Courtiers and families of
the monarch were buried in these low rectangular brick or stone structures. Like the
pyramids, they were built on the west side of the Nile (symbol of death, where the sun
falls into the underworld). During the Old Kingdom, Egyptians believed that only the
souls of kings went on to enjoy life with the gods. To encourage the soul to return to the
body, the body was preserved and a statuette in the likeness of the deceased was placed
in the tomb. The actual burial chamber was at the base of a deep vertical shaft below a
flat-roofed stone structure. A false door was carved on the interior tomb wall near the
entrance to the shaft. The mastabas were designed to ensure the well-being of the de-
ceased for all eternity.
ARCHITECTUREAL EVOLUTION:
• The mastaba was the standard type of tomb in pre-dynastic and early dynastic Egypt for both the pharaoh and the so-
cial elite. The ancient Egyptian city of Abydos was the location chosen for many of these early mastabas.
• Even after pharaohs began to construct pyramids for their tombs, members of the nobility continued to be buried in
mastaba tombs. This is especially evident on the Giza Plateau, where hundreds of mastaba tombs have been construct-
ed alongside the pyramids.
• In the Fourth Dynasty, rock-cut tombs began to appear. These were tombs built into the rock cliffs in Upper Egypt in an
attempt to further thwart grave robbers. By the Eighteenth Dynasty or the New Kingdom “the mastaba becomes rare,
being largely superseded by the independent pyramid chapel above a burial chamber.
THE MASTHABA OF THI, SAKKARA
• It consists of a small vestibule, beyond which is a large court, where offerings to the deceased were made, and from which a mummy shaft led to the tomb chamber
• The Mastaba of Thi, Sakkara. A second tomb chamber, 22 ft. 9 ins. by 23 ft. 9 ins. and 12 ft. 6 ins. high, has mural reliefs which represent harvesting, ship-building, slaughtering
of sacrificial animals, as well as arts and crafts of Old Egypt
• The masonry is accurately jointed, and the bas-reliefs are some of the finest and most interesting in Egypt.
10. 10 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Floor plan of the famous mastaba of Thi :
1:Portico with two pillars
2: First serdab, visible through two narrow windows from
the portica and from the courtyard
3: Pillared courtyard; a: false door of Demedj, Ti’s son
4: First corridor; b: false door of Nefer-Hetep-es (Neferhete-
pes), Ti’s wife, aligned with her tomb shaft (no. 9)
5: Second corridor
6: Storeroom
7: The chapel for Ti; c, d: false doors of Ti, aligned with his
burial chamber (C)
8: Second serdab, visible through three narrow windows
from the chapel
9: Tomb shaft for Nefer-Hetep-es (Neferhetepes), Ti’s wife
The red outline outlines Ti’s burial chamber below the mas-
taba.
A: descent from the courtyard
B: sloping corridor
C: burial chamber with
D: Ti’s stone sarcophagus
PYRAMIDS
The spectacular pyramids that have made Egypt so fa-
mous are truly one of the world’s greatest architectural
wonders. One of the oldest mysteries surrounding an-
cient Egypt concerns the building of the pyramids.
A pyramid is a tomb, a four-sided stone structure that
symbolizes the sacred mountain, humanity’s universal
striving to reach the heavens. The ancient belief in rais-
ing the human spirit towards the gods is the quintessen-
tial purpose behind the construction of pyramids.
The First Pyramids
The Pyramid Age began during the Old Kingdom (2650-2134 B.C.), when the first pyra-
mids were built by King Djoser in the third dynasty. Construction of pyramids continued until
1640 B.C. During the first and second dynasties, Egyptian kings were buried in mastabas.
In the fourth dynasty, the Pharaoh Snefru built the first geometrically true pyramids at
Dahshur, south of Saqqara. He started by adding a smooth casing over the steps of two
pyramids that were built by his predecessors. He then built two pyramids of his own.
The pyramids built during the fifth dynasty had a core of rubble and mud bricks, and a
limestone facing. When the limestone was removed, the core collapsed.
11. 11
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Giza Pyramids
The most famous pyramids are found at Giza. They were built by three pharaohs — Che-
ops (or Khufu*), Chephren (Khafre*) and Mycerinus (Menkaure*) — during the second
half of the third millennium B.C. The Great Pyramid of Cheops, the largest of the three
at Giza, is estimated to comprise as many as 2.5 million limestone blocks with an average
weight estimated at 2.5 tonnes (2.5 tons). The entire structure was encased in a fine white
polished limestone brought from the hills at Tura, on the opposite side of the Nile
.
When completed, the Great Pyramid stood 146.6 metres (481 feet) tall, and its base was
230.3 metres (756 feet) square. The capstones (pyramidions) of all the pyramids were made
of solid polished granite. For conservation reasons, they have been removed to the Egyp-
tian Museum in Cairo, where they are on display.
The king’s burial chamber is located in the middle of the pyramid, high above ground, and
a series of relieving chambers were built above it to prevent it from collapsing.
The Giza Sphinx
The Great Sphinx at Giza, near Cairo, is probably the most famous sculpture in the world.
With a lion’s body and a human head, it represents Ra-Horakhty, a form of the powerful
sun god, and is the incarnation of royal power and the protector of the temple doors.
The Sphinx is the oldest and longest stone sculpture from the Old Kingdom. During the
eighteenth dynasty, it was called “Horus of the Horizon” and “Horus of the Necropolis”,
the sun god that stands above the horizon . Carved out of a natural limestone outcrop, the
Sphinx is 19.8 metres (65 feet) high and 73.2 metres (240 feet) long. It is located a short
distance from the Great Pyramid.
phinxes are sometimes represented with a female face. For example, a sphinx of Queen
Hatshepsut was sculpted with her face and a pharaoh’s beard. Queen Tiy, wife of Amenho-
tep III, was the first to have a truly female sphinx sculpted in her likeness. Besides a female
face without a beard, her sphinx had breasts and wings.
The Last Pyramids
The last pyramids were built around Dahshur and Hawara by the kings of the Middle King-
dom (2040-1640 B.C.). Despite considerable efforts to conceal the entrance to the tombs
and attempts to foil robbers with false passageways, the architects failed to prevent the
plundering of the pyramids. As a result, a thousand years of pyramid building came to an
end. The experiment to secure the kings’ journey to eternity had proven unsuccessful. For
this reason, the pharaohs of the New Kingdom turned their attention to building tombs in
the Valley of the Kings. In a remote location across the Nile from Luxor and Karnak, they
hoped to escape the ill fate of their predecessors.
12. 12 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Valley of the Kings
The Valley of the Kings is famous for its royal tombs.
For over a thousand years, the kings, queens and nobles of the New Kingdom (1500-
1070 B.C.) were buried in this valley, which is the world’s most magnificent burial
ground.
The tombs were cut into the limestone rock in a remote wadi (a dried-up river valley)
on the west side of the Nile, opposite the present day city of Karnak. Their walls were
painted and sculpted with magnificent murals depicting scenes of daily life and the
land of the gods. The chambers were filled with treasures -- everything from furniture
to food, statues, boats and jewels, which a person needed to sustain life into eternity.
The royals and their courtiers hoped to find refuge from robbers and their enemies,
who caused such havoc in the pyramid tombs of their predecessors.
The Valley of the Kings was located in the ancient necropolis of Thebes, the capital of
Egypt during the New Kingdom. Two branches separate the valley into the Western
Valley and the Valley of the Monkeys.
The valley contains hundreds of tombs, many of which have yet to be excavated and
others that have not yet been found. The most famous tomb (KV No. 62) belongs to
the boy king Tutankhamun.
Temples
Over a long period of time, the Egyptians built numerous temples along the Nile. Two of the most famous, at Karnak and Luxor. These impressive structures, with
their huge columned halls and pylon gateways, were built to honour the dead and venerate local and national gods. Temples were places where the gods and their divine
energy could reside, separated from everything else in the world. According to the Egyptian creation legend, the first temple came into existence on a mound of land
that rose up from the primeval sea, called Nun.
The design of the first temple was laid down by the gods, and each successive temple was a copy of the first one. The design encouraged the gods to bring divine
energy into the earth’s plane. Priests worked at the temples, conducting the daily rituals in honour of the deities and pharaohs to whom the temples were dedicated.
13. 13
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Karnak Temple
Located at the northern end of the town of Luxor, Karnak Temple has three main sacred
areas that honour three gods: Montu, an ancient local warrior god; Amun, the chief god
of Thebes; and the goddess Mut, wife of Amun. Amun, Mut and their son, Khonsu, were
members of the sacred family known as the Theban Triad.
The construction of Karnak Temple began in the Middle Kingdom and was completed
during the New Kingdom, some 1,600 years later. Every successive king of this era added
to the temple, which covers two hectares (five acres) of land. It is a complicated site with
four courtyards, ten pylons, a sacred lake and many buildings.
An avenue of sphinxes with curly-horned rams’ heads leads to the entrance to the first
pylon. The sphinxes represent a form of the sun god, Amun-Re. Between their paws is a
small figure of Rameses II, who won the famous Battle of Qadesh against the Hittites in
Syria (1274 B.C.).
Luxor Temple
This temple is located a mile south of Karnak Temple. Karnak and Luxor temples were
once joined by an avenue lined with two rows of human-headed stone sphinxes, guardians
of the temple gates and the underworld. Today, the remains of this avenue can be seen
outside the entrance to Luxor Temple.
The temple stands on the site of a New Kingdom building commissioned by Amenhotep
III in approximately 1380 B.C. A hundred years later, Rameses II added a great pylon gate-
way and an open courtyard. Unlike Karnak Temple, this temple was not enhanced by later
pharaohs.
Since all the temples were built from an original design dictated by the gods, they have a
similar look to them. For this reason, it is easy to confuse one temple with another.
Palaces
Palaces were the residences of the pharaohs and their entourage. They consisted of a com-
plex of buildings designed to house the headquarters of power and the temples for wor-
shipping the gods. There were two main sections, one to accommodate the needs of the
pharaoh and the other to meet the requirements of administration.
Palaces took on a distinctive architectural form around the end of the fourth millennium
B.C., a form that was repeated for most of the third millennium. They were essentially
rectangular structures consisting of high walls topped with towers. The tops of the towers
were often decorated with a rich cornice or panels.
14. 14 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
DAILY LIFE
Food
Agriculture
Each summer, starting in July, the Nile River rose, flood-
ing the low-lying plains on either side. Swollen by the
monsoon rains of Ethiopia, it deposited a layer of black
soil over the land, rich in nutrients needed for growing
crops. When it did not rise high enough, the fields did
not receive sufficient nutrients and moisture to support
the crops, which resulted in famine. Under normal con-
ditions, the flood plains supported a rich variety of plants
and animals that provided food for the ancient Egyptians.
The vast majority of the people were involved in farming.
When the flood waters began to recede in mid-Septem-
ber, farmers blocked canals to retain the water for irriga-
tion. Still used today, the shaduf is a mechanical irrigation
device used to conduct water from the canals to the fields.
One person can operate it by swinging the bucket of water
from the canal to the field. Livestock was important to the
Egyptian economy, supplying meat, milk, hides, and dung
for cooking fuel. Draft animals such as oxen increased ag-
ricultural productivity. Herdsmen and shepherds lived a
semi-nomadic life, pasturing their animals in the marshes
of the Nile.
(left) Breaking the ground with plough and hoe.
(centre) Reaping. Scattering the seed.
(right) Separating the grain from the chaff.
Paintings: Winnifred Neeler, Royal Ontario Museum
Food staples
The principal food crops, barley and emmer, were used
to make beer and bread, the main staples of the Egyptian
diet. Grains were harvested and stored in granaries un-
til ready to be processed. The quantities harvested each
season far exceeded the needs of the country, so much
was exported to neighbouring countries, providing a rich
source of income for the Egyptian treasury.
(left) A baker. (right) Fig gatherers.
Paintings: Winnifred Neeler, Royal Ontario Museum
A large variety of vegetables were grown, including on-
ions, garlic, leeks, beans, lentils, peas, radishes, cabbage,
cucumbers and lettuce. There were also fruits, such as
dates, figs, pomegranates, melons and grapes, and honey
was produced for sweetening desserts. The Egyptian diet
was supplemented by fish, fowl and meat, although peas-
ants probably enjoyed meat only on special occasions. Do-
mesticated animals raised for food included pigs, sheep
and goats. Grapes were processed into wine for the no-
ble class, but beer was the favourite drink of the common
people. Food was served in pottery bowls, but no utensils
were used for eating.
Bread- and beer-making
Model from the tomb of Mentuhotep II
(Valley of the Kings)
Plaster and wood
Royal Ontario Museum 907.18 series
Hunting and fishing
Pharaohs and nobles participated in hunting, fishing and
fowling expeditions, a means of recreation that had rit-
ualistic and religious significance. Hunting scenes often
depicted on temple walls and tombs reinforce the prowess
of kings and nobles. Rabbits, deer, gazelles, bulls, oryx, an-
telopes, hippopotamuses, elephants and lions were among
the wild animals hunted for their meat and skins.
The majority of the population of ancient Egypt were peasants who played a vital role within the
country’s strict hierarchical society. Artifacts related to daily activities remain as a testament to
the labours of the workers who transformed ancient Egypt into an earthly paradise.
15. 15
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Fishing allowed the working class to add variety to its diet.
The poor substituted fish for meat, which they could not
afford. The Nile, the marshes of the delta and the Mediter-
ranean Sea offered them a rich variety of species. Fishing
methods included the use of a hook and line, harpoons,
traps and nets. Birds, including geese and ducks, were also
hunted in the marshes and papyrus thickets along the Nile.
Small fishing boats (skiffs) were made from papyrus reeds,
which are naturally filled with air pockets, making them
particularly buoyant. Skiffs were also used for hunting game
in the Nile marshes.
Shelter
Most houses were made of brick. The banks of the Nile pro-
vided the mud used to make bricks . Brick makers collected
mud, added straw and water to it as needed, and stomped
it with their feet until it reached the right consistency. The
mixture was then placed in a mould. Once shaped, the
bricks were removed from the mould and left on the ground
to dry in the sun.
Egyptian peasants would have lived in simple mud-brick
homes containing only a few pieces of furniture: beds,
stools, boxes and low tables.
Cross-section of a typical house in the workers’ village at Deir
el-Medina. The workers who built the tombs in the Valley of the
Kings lived in this village.
Drawing: Catherine Fitzpatrick.
Craftworkers lived in one- or two-storey flat-roofed dwell-
ings made of mud bricks. The walls and roof would have
been covered with plaster and painted. Inside, there was a
reception room, a living room, bedrooms and a cellar in
which food and beverages were stored. Food was prepared
in an outdoor kitchen equipped with a mud-brick oven.
Stairs on the exterior of the house led to a roof-top terrace.
The homes of the wealthy were larger and more luxurious.
Spacious reception and living rooms opened onto a cen-
tral garden courtyard with a fish pond and flowering plants.
Each bedroom had a private bathroom, and the walls, col-
umns and ceilings were painted with beautiful designs in-
spired by nature. Elaborate and highly decorated furniture
included beds, chairs, boxes and tables. Painted clay pots
and vessels, as well as alabaster bowls and jars, were also
found in the homes of the nobles.
House in a garden with pools.
Painting: Winnifred Neeler, Royal Ontario Museum
Royal palaces, frequently cities in themselves, included sep-
arate residences, a temple and a workers’ village.
Transportation
The Nile River was the highway that joined the country to-
gether. Up until the nineteenth century, travel by land was
virtually unknown. Ships and boats were the main means of
transporting people and goods around the country. Egyp-
tian watercraft had a high stern and bow, and by the New
Kingdom, they were equipped with cabins at both ends.
The prevailing winds blew south, propelling boats travel-
ling in that direction, while boats heading north relied on
the current and oars.
Large wooden ships were equipped with square sails and
oars. Their planks, held together with rope, expanded in the
water, making the vessel watertight. Acacia wood was used
in Lower Nubia to build the ships that transported massive
blocks of stone from the Aswan district to the building sites
of the pyramids, temples and cities along the Nile. Ships
could travel with ease up and down the Nile from the delta
region to the First Cataract at Aswan.
Replica of a model barge found in Tutankhamun’s tomb Tut-
ankhamun’s royal ship
Boats also served a ceremonial purpose. They were used to
move images of gods from temple to temple, and to trans-
port the mummified bodies of royals and nobles across the
Nile to their tombs on the west bank. The roads in ancient
Egypt were little more than paths. To get around on land,
people walked, rode donkeys or travelled by wagon. They
carried goods on their head, but the donkeys and wagons
hauled heavier loads. Camels were almost unknown in
Egypt until the end of the pharaonic period. The wheel was
probably introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos, an Asiatic
people who invaded the country and ruled it in the fifteenth
and sixteenth dynasties. The Hyksos most likely had horse-
drawn chariots, which were used in warfare. New Kingdom
pharaohs and nobles adopted this mode of transportation
for hunting expeditions, but it was not used for travel by the
common people.
16. 16 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Trades and crafts
Stone and clay pots comprise one of the most important
categories of Egyptian artifacts. They help us understand
the evolution of the culture from the Predynastic Period to
the end of the pharaonic era. The banks of the Nile pro-
vided the mud and clay used to make ceramic ware. Food
was cooked in clay pots, which also served as containers for
grains, water, wine, beer, flour and oils. Baskets were the
other type of container found in the home. They were made
from reeds and the leaves of date palms that grew along the
Nile.
Skilled artisans were considered socially superior to com-
mon labourers. They learned their art from a master who
ensured stylistic continuity in the beautiful objects they
created for the living and the dead. Women engaged in
weaving, perfume making, baking and needlework. Very
few artistic creations were signed, and exceptional ability
was rewarded through increased social status.
Carpenters
Skilled carpenters manufactured a wide range of products,
from roofing beams to furniture and statues. Their tools
included saws, axes, chisels, adzes, wooden mallets, stone
polishers and bow drills. Since wood suitable for building
was scarce in ancient Egypt, it was imported from countries
such as Lebanon.
“The carpenter who wields an adze,
He is wearier than a field-labourer;
His field is the timber, his hoe the adze.
There is no end to his labour,
He does more than his arms can do (...)”
Stonemasons and Sculptors
Sculptors had to adhere to very strict stylistic rules. The
stone was first shaped and smoothed by masons using stone
hammers. For bas-reliefs, draftsmen outlined images on the
stone before a team of sculptors began carving them with
copper chisels. A fine abrasive powder was used to polish
the stone before the images were painted.
In this illustration, craftsmen from the Temple of Karnak polish
and paint a red-granite statue of Thutmosis III, on which they
carve an inscription.
The ancient Egyptians produced numerous monumental
and life-size stone statues of pharaohs, nobles, gods and
goddesses. They presented themselves as proud self-confi-
dent people capable of ruling their land and defying their
enemies.
Stone vessels were made by shaping the stone and smooth-
ing its exterior with abrasives such as quartz sand. A crank-
shaped drill was used to hollow out the interior.
Bead Making
Various types of semi-precious stones were used in jewel-
lery. To make beads, artisans broke stones and rolled them
between other stones to shape them. A bow drill was used
to drill a hole through the beads, which were then rolled in
a recessed receptacle containing an abrasive to refine their
shape.
Brickmakers and potters
The brickmaker had one of the more menial occupations
in ancient Egypt. To make bricks, Nile mud was mixed
with sand, straw and water, slapped into wooden moulds
and then slapped out onto the ground to dry in the sun.
Bricks were used extensively in ancient Egypt for building
everything from peasants’ homes to the pharaoh’s palaces.
Potters produced vast quantities of utilitarian vessels. Cow
dung, water and straw were mixed with mud to produce
clay ready for the potter’s wheel. The exterior surface of
pots was often covered with a reddish slip and/or decorated
using a stylus or comb before the pots were fired in kilns.
Merchants and Trade
The grain exported to neighbouring countries provided a
rich source of revenue for the Egyptian Treasury. Egypt’s
economy functioned on a barter system. Egyptian mer-
chants developed an extensive trade network for procur-
ing goods from other countries. Gold from the mines of
eastern Nubia, for example, was traded for raw materials or
manufactured goods.
17. 17
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Mistress of the House
Women of all classes could earn wages, own property and employ workers, but their main role was within the family. The title most women had was “mistress of
the house”. They were considered equal with men before the law, and could sue for damages and divorce. Musical scenes on murals seem to indicate a predomi-
nance of female musicians during the New Kingdom. Music served both secular and religious purposes, with many high-status New Kingdom women holding the
position of “chantress” to a local god. Harps, lutes, flutes, oboes, tambourines and sistra (rattles) were the main instruments used.
Clothing and adornment
The ancient Egyptians were very particular about cleanliness and personal appearance. People who were poorly groomed were considered inferior. Both men
and women used cosmetics and wore jewellery. One item of jewellery, the amulet, was believed to protect the owners and give them strength. Flax grown by
farmers was woven into fine linen for clothing. Working-class men wore loincloths or short kilts, as well as long shirt-like garments tied with a sash at the waist.
Kilts were made from a rectangular piece of linen that was folded around the body and tied at the waist. Wealthy men wore knee-length shirts, loincloths or
kilts and adorned themselves with jewellery – a string of beads, armlets and bracelets. Working-class women wore full-length wraparound gowns and close-fit-
ting sheaths. Elite women enhanced their appearance with make-up, earrings, bracelets and necklaces.
Both men and women wore sandals made of papyrus. Sandals made of vegetable fibres or leather were a common type of footwear. Nevertheless, men and women,
including the wealthy, were frequently portrayed barefoot.
18. 18 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
The Royal Image
Clothing
When royalty, gods and goddesses were portrayed in statues, temple carvings and wall paintings, it was the beauty and self-confidence of the subject that was
conveyed. Egyptian artistic conventions idealized the proportions of the body. Men are shown with broad shoulders, slim bodies, and muscular arms and legs;
and women have small waists, flat stomachs and rounded busts. Both wear elegant clothing and jewellery, and stand tall with their heads held high. Their stately
appearance commands the respect of all who gaze upon their portraits. In the Old Kingdom, goddesses and elite women were portrayed wearing a sheath with
broad shoulder straps. In the New Kingdom, they wore sheaths decorated with gold thread and colourful beadwork, and a type of sari; the sheath had only one
thin strap. These dresses were made of linen, and decorated with beautifully coloured patterns and beadwork.
By the reign of Amenhotep III (1390-1352 B.C.), women’s garments were made of very light see-through linen.
The men wore knee-length shirts, loincloths or kilts made of linen. Leather loincloths were not uncommon, however. Their garments were sometimes
decorated with gold thread and colourful beadwork. The priests, viziers and certain officials wore long white robes that had a strap over one shoulder, and
sem-priests (one of the ranks in the priesthood) wore leopard skins over their robes.
Hairstyles
The Egyptian elite hired hairdressers and took great care of their hair. Hair was washed and scented, and sometimes lightened with henna. Children had
their heads shaved, except for one or two tresses or a plait worn at the side of the head. This was called the sidelock of youth, a style worn by the god Horus
when he was an infant.
Women wearing perfumed cones and
wigs.
Painting: Winnifred Neeler, Royal On-
tario Museum
Wig replica.
Royal Ontario Museum
Both men and women sometimes wore hairpieces, but wigs were more common. Wigs
were made from human hair and had vegetable-fibre padding on the underside. Arranged
into careful plaits and strands, they were often long and heavy. They may have been worn
primarily at festive and ceremonial occasions, like in eighteenth-century Europe.
Priests shaved their heads and bodies to affirm their devotion to the deities and to rein-
force their cleanliness, a sign of purification.
Make-up
Elite men and women enhanced their appearance with various cosmetics: oils, perfumes,
and eye and facial paints. Both sexes wore eye make-up, most often outlining their lids with
a line of black kohl. When putting on make-up, they used a mirror, as we do today.
19. 19
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Jewellery
From the earliest times, jewellery was worn by the elite for self-adornment and as an indication of social status. Bracelets, rings, earrings, neck-
laces, pins, belt buckles and amulets were made from gold and silver inlaid with precious stones such as lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian and
amethyst. Faience and glass were also used to decorate pieces of jewellery. The elegant design of Egyptian jewellery often reflected religious
themes. Motifs included images of the gods and goddesses; hieroglyphic symbols; and birds, animals and insects that played a role in the cre-
ation myth. Commonly seen were the scarab; the Eye of Re; lotus and papyrus plants; the vulture and the hawk; the cobra; and symbols such as
the Isis knot, the shen ring (symbol of eternity) and the ankh (symbol of life). A person’s jewellery was placed in his or her grave to be used in
the afterworld, along with many other personal items.
Government
Government and religion were inseparable in ancient Egypt. The pharaoh was the head of state and the divine representative of the gods
on earth. Religion and government brought order to society through the construction of temples, the creation of laws, taxation, the orga-
nization of labour, trade with neighbours and the defence of the country’s interests. The pharaoh was assisted by a hierarchy of advisors,
priests, officials and administrators, who were responsible for the affairs of the state and the welfare of the people. Ancient Egypt could not
have achieved such stability and grandeur without the co-operation of all levels of the population. The pharaoh was at the top of the social
hierarchy. Next to him, the most powerful officers were the viziers, the executive heads of the bureaucracy. Under them were the high priests,
followed by royal overseers (administrators) who ensured that the 42 district governors carried out the pharaoh’s orders. At the bottom of
the hierarchy were the scribes, artisans, farmers and labourers.
Pharaohs
The word “pharaoh” comes from the Bible. It was first
used by Joseph and Moses in the “Second Book of Kings”
(ch.17). Although we use this word without distinction, it
is an anachronism when used to refer to the Egyptian kings
prior to the eighteenth dynasty.
The pharaohs began ruling Egypt in 3000 B.C., when Upper
and Lower Egypt were united. During the Old Kingdom
(2575-2134 B.C.), they considered themselves to be living
gods who ruled with absolute power. They built pyramids
as testimony of their greatness but left no official records of
their achievements.
By the Middle Kingdom, the pharaohs no longer consid-
ered themselves to be living gods, but rather the represen-
tatives of the gods on earth. They left records of their deeds,
but these were no more than a string of titles and laudatory
epithets.
Not all the pharaohs were men, nor were they all Egyptian.
Before the Graeco-Roman Period, at least three women as-
cended the throne, the most important being Queen Hat-
shepsut. Over several periods, Egypt was dominated by for-
eign powers that appointed a king from their own ranks.
Exactly how successive pharaohs were chosen is not en-
tirely clear. Sometimes a son of the pharaoh, or a powerful
vizier (head priest) or feudal lord assumed the leadership,
or an entirely new line of pharaohs arose following the col-
lapse of the former monarchy.
Royal Women
Royal mothers, wives and daughters derived their status
from their relationship with the king. Kings had many
wives and royal families were large. The most prolific was
Rameses II, who had eight wives and over a hundred chil-
dren. To keep the royal bloodline pure, kings often married
within their family, a sister or half sister, for example. In a
few cases, they married their daughters, although it is not
clear whether or not these marriages were true conjugal
unions.
(Left) The nobleman Hunefer and his wife with arms raised in
praise of the gods.
(Right) Queen Ahmose-Nefertari, pregnant with her daughter
Hatshepsut, is led to the birthing room by the gods.
20. 20 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Girls born to royal wives were given the title “king’s daugh-
ters” to distinguish them from those of non-royal wives.
Royal wives were called the king’s principal wives to dis-
tinguish them from the others, although the principal wife
was not always of royal birth.
Temple built by Rameses II to honour Hathor and Nefer-
tari. Statues of Rameses dressed as Horus and Nefertari
dressed as Hathor.
Nefertari, the beautiful wife of Rameses the Great, was an
exceptional woman who played an important role in state
and religious affairs. Loved by her people, she was called
“mistress of two lands”, a title normally reserved for the
king, the “lord of two lands”. She died in her late forties and
was buried in a magnificent house of eternity in the Valley
of the Queens. The portraits on the walls of Nefertari’s tomb
depict her as an elegant and radiant young woman.
The goddess Isis leads Queen Nefertari in the land of the gods.
Nefertari wears a vulture headdress, which identifies her as a
royal wife.
Royal Symbols
Egyptian art is rich in symbols related to royalty and its
religious beliefs. By learning to read these symbols, one can
gain a better understanding and appreciation of Egyptian
art . Below are a few of the most common symbols.
Ankh
In the shape of a mirror or a knot, the ankh is a symbol of
life. It was often carried by deities or people in a funeral
procession, or offered to the king as the breath of life.
Cartouche
A cartouche is an elliptical outline representing a length
of rope that encloses the names of royal persons in hiero-
glyphs. It symbolized the pharaoh’s status as ruler of all that
the sun encircled.
Crook and Flail
The crook and flail are two of the most prominent items in
the royal regalia. Kings held them across their chest.
Crowns and Headgear
Egyptian kings and gods are depicted wearing different
crowns and headdresses. Before 3000 B.C., there was the
white crown of Upper Egypt and the red crown of Low-
er Egypt. Kings are often represented wearing the nemes
headcloth, a piece of cloth pulled tight across the forehead
and tied at the back, with two flaps hanging on the sides.
Gold
The Egyptian symbol for gold (nebu) is a collar with beads
along the lower edge. Gold has long been associated with
the gods and royalty.
Isis Knot
The Isis Knot is similar to the ankh sign, but rather than
having a horizontal bar, it has two arms that are bent down-
ward.
21. 21
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Lotus
The blue lotus was a symbol of the sun god and the pha-
raohs.
Menit Necklace
This heavy beaded necklace with a crescent front piece and
a counterweight at the back is associated with the goddess
Hathor.
Papyrus
A water plant, the papyrus symbolizes the primeval marsh-
es of the creation story.
Reed and Bee
The Egyptian word nsw (he who belongs to the reed) is a
symbol for Upper Egypt, and the word bit (he who belongs
to the bee) is a symbol for Lower Egypt.
Scarab
The scarab’s habit of laying its eggs in a ball of dung, which
is then rolled along the ground and dropped into a hole,
made it an obvious symbol for the sun god.
Sceptres
The sceptre, or rod, is one of the oldest and most enduring
symbols associated with royalty and the deities.
Shen Ring
The circular shen ring represents the concept of eternity,
having no beginning and no end.
Sistrum
A ceremonial instrument, the sistrum is a rattle that is often
shaped like the ankh symbol.
Uraeus
The uraeus represents a rearing cobra with a flared hood.
The cobra is associated with the sun god, the kingdom of
Lower Egypt, the kings and their families, and several dei-
ties.
Vulture
The vulture was the symbol of Upper Egypt. Pharaohs wore
the uraeus (cobra) and the head of a vulture on their fore-
heads as symbols of royal protection. The goddess Nekhbet
was also portrayed as a vulture.
22. 22 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy is not a modern invention; it was conceived by the Egyptians over 5,000 years ago. The creation of a
bureaucracy in the Old Kingdom was a key factor in the inception of the Egyptian civilization. The king was the supreme head of
state. Next to him, the most powerful officer in the hierarchy was the vizier, the executive head of the bureaucracy. The position
of vizier was filled by a prince or a person of exceptional ability. His title is translated as “superintendent of all works of the king”.
As the supreme judge of the state, the vizier ruled on all petitions and grievances brought to the court. All royal commands
passed through his hands before being transmitted to the scribes in his office. They in turn dispatched orders to the heads of distant
towns and villages, and dictated the rules and regulations related to the collection of taxes. The king was surrounded by the court,
friends and favoured people who attained higher administrative positions. The tendency was to fill these positions on the basis of
heredity. One of the most ardent wishes of these administrators was to climb the bureaucratic ladder through promotions and to
hand their offices to their children.
Many concepts in modern bureaucracies can be traced to the Egyptians. The hierarchical struc-
ture and code of ethics of the Egyptian bureaucracy are echoed in modern governments. Ancient Egyptian
bureaucrats, who aspired to higher positions, were counselled to obey their superiors and keep silence in
all circumstances, in other words, not to contradict or challenge the wisdom of those in charge. They were
expected to have tact and good manners, be faithful in delivering messages, and display humility that verged
on subservience. It is perhaps for these reasons that Egyptian officials were called civil servants, a designation
that governments have adopted down through the ages.
The Military
The ancient Egyptians remained very conscious of social stratification, and barriers between the classes were
quite rigid. Climbing the social ladder was difficult, but it could be achieved through outstanding accom-
plishments in professions such as that of the scribes and the military.
The military took part in warfare and trade missions, helping to maintain Egypt’s sovereignty and expand its
territories. The deserts and the Mediterranean gave the country a natural means of protection. Still, invasions
did occur. In the Old Kingdom, the small military units were reinforced by farmers when necessary. During
times of internal instability, private armies were established, which included non-Egyptian mercenaries.
During the reign of Ramses II (New Kingdom), vast improvements were made in military technology and
tactics.
The Narmer palette is the earliest artifact depicting an Egyptian king wearing
the crowns of both Upper and Lower Egypt. It commemorates King Narmer’s
victory over Lower Egypt and the subsequent union of Upper and Lower Egypt
in the late Pre-dynastic Period (3000 B.C.).
23. 23
EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
GEOGRAPHY
The Egyptian coastal and inland deserts cover more than 96 % of its total area.
These deserts are characterized by the growth of a permanent framework of halophytic and xero-
phytic vegetation types in seven different habitats, namely: mangrove swamps, reed swamps, salt
marshes, sand dunes, rocky ridges, desert wadis and mountains. The main communities forming
these vegetation types are described with respect to their domination, floristic composition and
geographical distribution in Egypt. The soil types of the Egyptian desert and the importance of
remote sensing technology to prepare the vegetation map of the Egyptian deserts are also present-
ed. The economic potentialities of some selected halophytes and xerophytes and their role in the
agro-industrial sustainable development of the Egyptian deserts The permanent framework of the
coastal and inland deserts in Egypt is formed mainly of perennial (wood and succulent) bushes,
under shrubs, shrubs, few trees as well as perennial herbs. The spaces in between these perennial
plants are usually vegetated with the short- lived ephemeral, annual and biennial (therophytes)
herbs that appear only during the rainy years Seven main vegetation types are recognized in the
Egyptian deserts within its two main climatic provinces, namely: mangrove swamps, reed swamps,
salt marshes, sand dunes, coastal rocky ridges, desert wadis, and mountainous, in addition to the
palm groves. The distri- bution of these vegetation types depends primarily upon the climatic fea-
tures: latitudinally and altitudinally. However, under the same climate, soil type significantly con-
trols the distribution and zonation of vegetation. For example, along a 20 km sea land-ward line
transect in the Red Sea coastal land of Egypt, all of the above men- tioned vegetation types occur.
Such line transect repre- sents one latitude (from coast westward) with similar climatic particulars.
Accordingly, the recognized zona- tion pattern is not a climatic phenomenon but is essen- tially.
Egypt to accelerate the process of development is
to look at the vast deserts they have and to make use of their nat-
ural resources. Though look barren and desolate, these deserts
are rich in some places in oil, minerals, ground water; soil, vege- ta-
tion, solar energy, wind energy wild animals and hu- man resources.
Making use of these renewable and non- renewable natural re-
sources on a scientific basis, in a
24. 24 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
The Western Desert of Egypt is an area of the Sahara that lies west
of the river Nile, up to the Libyan border, and south from the Mediterranean sea to the bor-
der with Sudan. It is named in contrast to the Eastern Desert which extends east from the
Nile to Red Sea. The Western Desert is mostly rocky desert, though an area of sandy desert,
known as the Great Sand Sea, lies to the west against the Libyan border. The desert covers
an area of 680,650 km2(262,800 sq mi) which is two-thirds of the land area of the country.
[1] Its highest elevation is 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in the Gilf Kebir plateau to the far south-west
of the country, on the Egypt-Sudan-Libya border. The Western Desert is barren and unin-
habited save for a chain of oases which extend in an arc from Siwa, in the north-west, to
Kharga in the south.
The NileThe Nile is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. The longest river in Africa, it has historically been considered the longest river in the
world,houghthishasbeencontestedbyresearchsuggestingthattheAmazonRiverisslightlylonger,theNileisamongstthesmallestintheworldbymeasureofcubicmetresflowing
annually.About 6,650 km (4,130 mi)long, its drainage basin covers eleven countries: Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Ethiopia,
Eritrea, South Sudan, Republic of the Sudan, and Egypt. In particular, the Nile is the primary water source of Egypt and Sudan.
TheNilehastwomajortributaries–theWhiteNileandtheBlueNile.TheWhiteNileisconsideredtobetheheadwatersandprimarystreamoftheNileitself.TheBlueNile,however,
isthesourceofmostofthewater,containing80%ofthewaterandsilt.TheWhiteNileislongerandrisesintheGreatLakesregionofcentralAfrica,withthemostdistantsourcestill
undetermined but located in either Rwanda or Burundi.
Sources
The Nile river system, has two principal tributaries which combined make the existing Nile river, the White Nile, which supplies much less water to Nile’s flow, and
the Blue Nile. The source of the White Nileis the Luvironza river,the source of the Blue Nile is Lake Tana in the Gilgel Abbay watershed in the Ethiopian Highlands.
The Nile leaves Lake Victoria at Ripon Falls near Jinja, Uganda, as the Victoria Nile. It flows north for some 130 kilometers
(81 mi), to Lake Kyoga. The last part of the approximately 200 kilometers (120 mi) river section starts from the western
shores of the lake and flows at first to the west until just south of Masindi Port, where the river turns north, then makes a
great half circle to the east and north until Karuma Falls.
Location
Countries Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Ethiopia,
Uganda, Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi
Major cities Jinja, Juba, Khartoum, Cairo
Physical characteristics
Source White Nile
• location Burundi[1] or Rwanda[2]
• coordinates 02°1656S 29°1953E
• elevation 2,400 m (7,900 ft)
2nd source Blue Nile
• location Lake Tana, Ethiopia
• coordinates 12°0209N 037°1553E
Mouth Mediterranean Sea
• location Nile Delta, Egypt
• coordinates 30°10N 31°09ECoordinates:
30°10N 31°09E
• elevation Sea level
Length 6,650 km (4,130 mi)[n 1]
Basin size 3,400,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi)
Width
• maximum 2.8 km (1.7 mi)
Depth
• average 8–11 m (26–36 ft)
Discharge
• location Aswan
• average 2,830 m3/s (100,000 cu ft/s)
Discharge
• location Cairo
• average 1,400 m3/s (49,000 cu ft/s)[3]
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Tributaries of Nile
Red Nile
Below the confluence with the Blue Nile the only major tributary is the Atbara River, also known as the Red Nile, roughly halfway to the sea, which originates
in Ethiopia north of Lake Tana, and is around 800 kilometers (500 mi) long. The Atbara flows only while there is rain in Ethiopia and dries very rapidly. During the dry period
of January to June, it typically dries up north of Khartoum.
Blue Nile
The Blue Nile springs from Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands. The Blue Nile flows about 1,400 kilometres to Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile join to form
the Nile. Ninety percent of the water and ninety-six percent of the transported sediment carried by the Nileoriginates in Ethiopia, with fifty-nine percent of the water from
the Blue Nile (the rest being from the Tekezé, Atbarah, Sobat, and small tributaries). The erosion and transportation of silt only occurs during the Ethiopian rainy season in
the summer, however, when rainfall is especially high on the Ethiopian Plateau; the rest of the year, the great rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile (Sobat, Blue Nile, Tekezé,
and Atbarah) have a weaker flow. In harsh and arid seasons and droughts the Blue Nile dries out completely.
Role in the founding of Egyptian civilization
The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that “Egypt was the gift of the Nile”. An unending source of sustenance, it played a crucial role in the development of
Egyptian civilization. Because the river overflowed its banks annually and deposited new layers of silt, the surrounding land was very fertile. The Ancient Egyptians cultivated
and traded wheat, flax, papyrus and other crops around the Nile. Wheat was a crucial crop in the famine-plagued Middle East. This trading system secured Egypt’s diplomatic
relationships with other countries and contributed to economic stability. Far-reaching trade has been carried on along the Nile since ancient times. A tune, Hymn to the Nile,
was created and sung by the ancient Egyptian peoples about the flooding of the Nile River and all of the miracles it brought to Ancient Egyptian civilization.
The Nile was also an important part of ancient Egyptian spiritual life. Hapi was the god of the annual floods, and both he and the pharaoh were thought to
control the flooding. The Nile was considered to be a causeway from life to death and the afterlife. The east was thought of as a place of birth and growth, and the west was
considered the place of death, as the god Ra, the Sun, underwent birth, death, and resurrection each day as he crossed the sky. Thus, all tombs were west of the Nile, because
the Egyptians believed that in order to enter the afterlife, they had to be buried on the side that symbolized death.
As the Nile was such an important factor in Egyptian life, the ancient calendar was even based on the three cycles of the Nile. These seasons, each consist-
ing of four months of thirty days each, were called Akhet, Peret, and Shemu. Akhet, which means inundation, was the time of the year when the Nile flooded, leaving several
layers of fertile soil behind, aiding in agricultural growth. Peret was the growing season, and Shemu, the last season, was the harvest season when there were no rains.
An aerial view of irrigation from the Nile River sup-
porting agriculture in Luxor, Egypt
John Hanning Speke c.
1863. Speke
was the Victorian explorer who first
reached Lake Victoria in 1858, re-
turning to establish it as the source
of the Nile by 1862.[
26. 26 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Since 1950
The Nile has long been used to transport goods along its length. Winter winds blow south,
up river, so ships could sail up river, and down river using the flow of the river. While most Egyptians
still live in the Nile valley, the 1970 completion of the Aswan High Dam ended the summer floods and
their renewal of the fertile soil, fundamentally changing farming practices. The Nile supports much of
the population living along its banks, enabling Egyptians to live in otherwise inhospitable regions of
the Sahara. The river’s flow is disturbed at several points by the Cataracts of the Nile, which are sections
of faster-flowing water with many small islands, shallow water, and rocks, which form an obstacle to
navigation by boats. The Sudd wetlands in Sudan also forms a formidable navigation obstacle and im-
pede water flow, to the extent that Sudan had once attempted to canalize (the Jonglei Canal) to bypass
the swamps
A map of the Nile c.
1911, a time when its entire primary course ran through
British occupations, condominiums, colonies, and protectorates[
There is only one year-round river in Egypt, the Nile. It has no non-seasonal tributaries for its entire length in Egypt, though
it has two further upstream, the Blue Nile and White Nile, which merge in central Sudan.
In the Nile Delta, the river splits into a number of distributaries and lesser channels. In ancient times there were seven dis-
tributaries, of which only two are extant today due to silting and flood relief schemes. From east to west, they were:
• the Pelusiac,
• the Tanitic,
• the Mendesian,
• the Phatnitic (extant; now the Damietta or Damyat),
• the Sebennytic,
• the Bolbitinic,
• the Canopic (extant; now the Rosetta or Rashid).
The Nile River flows over 6,600 kilometers (4,100 miles) until emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. For thousands of years,
the river has provided a source of irrigation to transform the dry area around it into lush agricultural land. Today, the river
continues to serve as a source of irrigation, as well as an important transportation and trade route.
The name Nile is derived from the Greek Neilos (Latin: Nilus), which probably originated from the Semitic root canal,
meaning a valley or a river valley and hence, by an extension of the meaning, a river. The fact that the Nile—unlike other
great rivers known to them—flowed from the south northward and was in flood at the warmest time of the year was an
unsolved mystery to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks.
The basin is bordered on the north by the Mediterranean; on the east by the Red Sea Hills and the Ethiopian Plateau; on the
south by the East African Highlands, which include Lake Victoria, a Nile source; and on the west by the less well-defined
watershed between the Nile, Chad, and Congo basins.
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Toshka Lakes
The new lake system is endorheic, that is, the waters can never flow on to the sea. The
Nile-sourced water creates the lakes and helps to recharge the underlying aquifer; but des-
ert temperatures cause very high levels of evaporation. Although the new lakes already
contain an impressive amount of fish, these high evaporation levels will make the waters
become increasingly saline over time, reducing fish stocks and harming the newly estab-
lished flora and fauna.
lakes in Egypt :
Lake Nasser
The lake is some 479 km (298 mi) long and 16 km (9.9 mi) across at its widest point, which is near
the Tropic of Cancer. It covers a total surface area of 5,250 km2 (2,030 sq mi) and has a storage
capacity of some 132 km3 (32 cu mi) of water.
The lake was created as a result of the construction of the Aswan High Dam across the waters of the
Nile between 1958 and 1970.[8] The lake is named after Gamal Abdel Nasser, one of the leaders of
the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, and the second President of Egypt, who initiated the High Dam
project. It was President Anwar Sadat who inaugurated the lake and dam in 1971.
Lake Mariout
is a brackish lake in northern Egypt near the city of Alexandria. In antiquity, the lake was much
larger than it is now, extending further to the south and west and occupying around 700 square
kilometres (270 sq mi). It had no mouth connecting it to the Mediterranean, being fed with Nile
water via a number of canals. By the twelfth century the lake had dwindled to a collection of salt
lakes and salt flats and it had dried up by the Late Middle Ages.
At least 250 years ago, the lake was fresh water, and much of it would dry up during the period just
before the Nile flooded again. A storm in 1770 breached the sea wall at Abu Qir, creating a seawa-
ter lake known as Lake Abu Qir. The salt waters were kept separate from Lake Mariout by the canal
that allowed fresh water to travel from the Nile to Alexandria.
the British cut the canal, allowing a great rush of sea water from Lake Abu Qir into Lake Mariout.
Lake Abu Qir ceased to exist, and Lake Mariout became brackish instead of fresh
28. 28 EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Fertile Land:
The most important thing the Nile provided to the Ancient Egyptians was fertile
land. Most of Egypt is desert, but along the Nile River the soil is rich and good for
growing crops. The three most important crops were wheat, flax, and papyrus.
Wheat - Wheat was the main staple food of the Egyptians. They used it to make
bread. They also sold a lot of their wheat throughout the Middle East helping the
Egyptians to become rich.
Flax - Flax was used to make linen cloth for clothing. This was the main type of cloth
used by the Egyptians.
Papyrus - Papyrus was a plant that grew along the shores of the Nile. The Ancient
Egyptians found many uses for this plant including paper, baskets, rope, and sandals.
Building Material:
The Nile River also provided a lot of building materials for the Ancient Egyptians.
They used the mud from the riverbanks to make sundried bricks. These bricks were
used in building homes, walls, and other buildings. The Egyptians also quarried
limestone and sandstone from the hills along the side of the Nile
Fun Facts about the Nile River
The Ancient Egyptians called the rich black soil from the floods the “Gift of the
Nile”.
Today, the Aswan Dam keeps the Nile from flooding modern cities.
The Ancient Egyptians called the Nile the “Aur”, which means “black” and comes
from the black soil.
