C2 unit i education in contemporary India, Constitutional Context

1 | Dr.C.Thanavathi
B.Ed. First Year – Semester I (2021 – 2022)
C2 - CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION
Unit – I
EDUCATION IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA, CONSTITUTIONAL
CONTEXT
Education – meaning, definitions, nature, functions and aims; nature of
education as a discipline - types of education; formal, informal and non-formal; levels
of education - Pre-primary, primary, secondary, senior secondary, higher,
professional, distance and optional education; Aims and purposes of education drawn
from constitutional provision; Education as a means of social justice in the Indian
Constitution; Constitutional values and education (Preamble, Fundamental rights and
duties); the Right to Free and Compulsory Education 2010 (RTE) and inclusion;
Education in the concurrent list and its implications.
1.1. EDUCATION - MEANING
Education is a systematic process through which a child or an adult acquires
knowledge, experience, skill, and sound attitude. It makes an individual civilized,
refined, cultured, and educated. For a civilized and socialized society, education is the
only means. Its goal is to make an individual perfect. Every society gives importance
to education because it is a panacea for all evils. It is the key to solving the various
problems of life.
Education has been described as a process of waking up to life:
⮚ Waking up to life and its mysteries, its solvable problems, and the ways to solve
the problems and celebrate the mysteries of life.
⮚ Waking up to the inter-dependencies of all things, to the threat to our global
village, to the power within the human race to create alternatives, to the
obstacles entrenched in economic, social, and political structures that prevent
our waking up.

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⮚ Education in the broadest sense of the term is meant to aid the human being in
his/her pursuit of wholeness. Wholeness implies the harmonious development
of all the potentialities God has given to a human person.
⮚ True education is the harmonious development of the physical, mental, moral
(spiritual), and social faculties, the four dimensions of life, for a life of dedicated
service.
Etymological Meaning of Education
Etymologically, the word ‘Education’ has been derived from different Latin words.
a) ‘educare’ which means ‘to nourish’.
b) ‘educo’ which means to lead out (of ignorance)
c) ‘educere’ which means ‘to draw out’
d) ‘educatum’ which means ‘act of training’.
e) ‘educatus’ which means ‘to bring up, to rear’.
f) ‘educatio’ which means “a breeding, a bringing up, a rearing.”
The word ‘shiksha’ is derived from the Sanskrit which means ‘to discipline’,
‘to control’, ‘to instruct’, and ‘to teach’; and the word ‘vidya’ is also derived from
Sanskrit which means ‘to know’.
1.2. EDUCATION - DEFINITIONS
Since time immemorial, education has been estimated as the right road to
progress and prosperity. Different educationists’ thoughts from both Eastern and
Western sides have explained the term ‘education’ according to the need of the hour.
Various educationists have given their views on education. Some important definitions
are:
1. Aristotle – “Education is the creation of sound mind in a sound body.”
2. Rousseau – “Education is the child’s development from within.”
3. Plato – “Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment.”
4. Pestalozzi – “Education is natural, harmonious and progressive development of
man’s innate powers.”
5. Froebel -“Education is enfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ.”
6. John Dewey – “Education is the process of living through a continuous
reconstruction of experiences.”

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7. Mahatma Gandhi – “By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in
man-body, mind, and spirit.”
8. Rabindranath Tagore – “Education enables the mind to find out the ultimate truth,
which gives us the wealth of inner light and love and gives significance to life.”
9. Zakir Husain – “Education is the process of the individual mind, getting to its full
possible development.”
10. Swami Vivekananda – “Education is the manifestation of divine perfection
already existing in man.”
1.3. NATURE OF EDUCATION
Education is a triangular process. It involves the inter-play of the educator, the
educand and the social forces. The educator tries to modify the personality of the child
in the light of the needs of the individual and the society to which he belongs. The
nature of education is very complex. Let us now discuss the nature of education:
1. It is a life-long process- Education is a continuous and lifelong process. It starts
from the womb of the mother and continues till death. It is the process of development
from infancy to maturity. It includes the effect of everything which influences human
personality.
2. It is a dynamic process: Education is not a static but a dynamic process which
develops the child according to changing situations and times. It always induces the
individual towards progress. It reconstructs the society according to the changing needs
of the time and place of the society.
3. It is a systematic and purposive process- It refers to transact its activities through
a systematic institution and regulation. Every individual has some goal in his life.
Education contributes to the attainment of that goal. There is a definite purpose
underlined in all educational activities.
4. It is the development of individual and the society- Education helps in individual
adjustment a man is a social being. If he is not able to adjust himself in different aspects
of life his personality can’t remain balanced. Through the medium of education, he
learns to adjust himself with the friends, class fellows, parents, relations, neighbours
and teachers, etc. Education is also a force for social development, which brings
improvement in every aspect of society. It is the society that will determine the aims,
contents, and methods of teachings.

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5. It is training and modification of behaviour- Education is training- Human senses,
mind, behaviour, activities; skills are trained in a constructive and socially desirable
way. Human behaviour is modified and improved through the educational process. As
per the definition of John Dewey education reconstructs and remodels our experiences
towards socially desirable ways.
6. Education is instruction and direction- It directs and instructs an individual to
fulfil his desires and needs for the exaltation of his whole personality. Life without
education is meaningless and like the life of a beast. Every aspect and incident needs
education for its sound development.
7. It is balanced development: Education is concerned with the development of all
faculties of the child. It performs the functions of the physical, mental, aesthetic, moral,
economic, spiritual development of the individual so that the individual may get rid of
his animal instincts by sublimating the same so that he becomes a civilized person.
8. Education is growth: The end of growth is more growth and the end of education is
more education. According to John Dewey, “an individual is a changing and growing
personality.” The purpose of education is to facilitate the process of his/her growth.
Education is a continuous reconstruction of our experiences.
Therefore, the role of education is countless for a perfect society and man. It is
necessary for every society and nation to bring holistic happiness and prosperity to its
individuals.
1.4. FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
In the words of John Dewey, ‘the function of education is to help the growth of
a helpless young animal into a happy, moral and efficient human being’ (Taneja, 2005).
Education has three main functions. They are as follows:
i. General Functions of Education
ii. Functions of Education in Human Life
iii. Functions of Education in National Life
iv. Functions towards Individual
v. Functions towards Society
vi. Functions towards Nation
i. General Functions of Education
• Education helps the individual for the development of their innate power that
they already have.

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• Education helps the individual in the all-around development of their
personality.
• Education helps to direct the individual in the proper way and control and
sublimate the instincts.
• Education helps the individual in developing character, moral and ethical
values.
• Education helps the individual to prepare for future life. It helps to achieve good
citizenship, fellow-feeling, cooperation, dutiful to all human endeavors.
• Education helps to preserve, control, and transmit the rich culture and tradition.
• It helps to maintain national security, social feeling, and reforms.
ii. Functions of Education in Human Life
• It makes the individual skilful to adapt to different, new, and changing situations
and environments.
• It helps the individual to modify their behaviour and also the environment they
live in.
• It helps to bring satisfaction to the educational, social, physical, and spiritual
needs of the individual.
• It helps to bring educational and vocational efficiency among the individual and
fit them for achieving self-sufficiency.
• It helps develop the character of the individual and prepare for their life.
• It also helps the individual for the all-round development of their personality,
reorganization, and reconstruction of experiences.
• It helps the individual to work as an agent of social change.
iii. Functions of Education in National Life
• It helps the individual to train for leadership that may further help the individual
to take the leadership role in the areas of their interest for the nation.
• It teaches the individual to achieve national and emotional integration, which
are the binding principles for maintaining a healthy national life.
• It empowers the people of the country to take social, economic, and scientific
responsibilities for the total national development of the country.
• It helps the individual to inculcate civic and social values and duties for leading
a healthy and disciplined life.
• It helps to supply skilled human power for national development.
• It also helps the individual in promoting social and cultural efficiency.

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iv. Function Towards Individual
i) Education as Growth,
ii) Education as Direction,
iii) Preparation for the responsibility of adult life
i) Education as Growth
Every learner is immature at the beginning.
He is to be trained deliberately for adult life.
Education deliberately and systematically influences a mature influence of the
teacher through instruction, discipline, and harmonious development.
The harmonious development includes development in terms of physical,
intellectual, aesthetic, social, and spiritual powers of human beings, according
to the needs of the society.
ii) Education as Direction
Direction is the fixation of the activity into a right response by elimination of
unnecessary and confusing movements.
Every learner is gifted with innate capacities and powers.
His physical and social environment provides the learner with a stimulus for
activity.
In the beginning, as the learner acts in response to the stimulus in an immature
way, much of his constructive energy is wasted.
This wastage can be avoided if the learner is properly directed towards an
objective.
Education provides this sense of direction and the activities of the learner
become purposeful.
Types of Direction
There are two types of direction:
1) External and internal direction.
2) Personal and impersonal direction
1) External and Internal
The immediate environment which provides the learner with a stimulus for his
activity is external.
Responses to the stimuli which proceed from his internal tendencies are internal.

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2) Personal and Impersonal
Personal direction includes ridicule, disapproval, and punishment. It refers to
physical control which is not educational.
Impersonal direction is important as this direction is bound to appeal to the
learner’s mind and heart.
In this context, the teacher has to set a good example to follow.
This direction is corrective; it has the potential to have a corrective effect.
iii) Preparation for the responsibility of adult life
Reconstruction and re-organization of experience adds to meaningful
experiences and increases the ability to direct subsequent experiences.
v. Functions Towards Society
i) Socialization
ii) Reconstruction of Experiences
Education is a powerful tool to bring in a positive socialization process and has
the ability to reconstruct life experiences for the growth of the society on the whole.
i) Socialization
Man is a social animal.
An individual is the sum total of his interactions with his social environment.
The elders of the society pass on their experiences, interests, findings,
conclusions, traditions, and attitudes to the younger generation.
All these have a profound influence on the growth and development of the
younger generations.
In this manner, the continuity of the societal function is successfully maintained.
ii) Reconstruction of Experiences
As growth is a continuous process, education is also a continuous process
throughout an individual’s life.
Education provides the learner with rich resources to shape his life, personality,
character, outlook, and his experiences and interaction in the society.
Thus education helps the learner in re-constructing and re-organizing of the
individual and societal life.
vi. Function Towards Nation
i) Civic and Social Responsibility
ii) Training for Leadership
iii) Emotional Integration

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iv) National Integration
Education has potentials to indirectly influence and support the state’s/nation’s
functioning by means of inculcating civic sense among the learners and thereby paves
way for emotional and national integration.
i) Civic and Social Responsibility
Promoting civic responsibility is considered to be the most important function
of education.
True education promotes learners to understand their rights and duties as
individual citizens.
The very existence and progress of a nation depends on the educational system
of the state.
ii) Training for Leadership
Efficient functioning in all the spheres such as social, political, religious, and
educational activities depend on the quality of education.
Therefore, the function of a good educational system is to develop such qualities
among the learners so as to promote the comprehensive development of the
individual and the state.
iii) Emotional Integration
Educational system aims at promoting unity in diversity, in terms of unity in the
areas of religion, language, diet, dress, habits, and physical environment.
iv) National Integration
True education aims to raise individuals to break down narrow prejudices of
caste, community, region, and to look to a broad national outlook.
1.5. AIMS OF EDUCATION
Aims give direction to activities. Aims of education are formulated keeping in
view the needs of the situation. Human nature is multi-sided with multiple needs, which
are related to life. Educational aims are correlated to the ideals of life.
1. Knowledge Aim. Perhaps the oldest aims of education. Education emphasizes the
acquisition of knowledge for its own sake. Knowledge is essential for intellectual
development, a better adjustment in life, social efficiency, character formation, and
spiritual upliftment. The mere acquisition of knowledge might transform an individual
into an intellectual but it alone cannot make him a complete man. Practical wisdom and
skills, as well as the capacity to apply knowledge, are important.

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2. Vocational Aim. Self-preservation is the individual’s first need. So education should
enable one to earn his bread and butter. Most of the parents send their children to school
mainly with this aim in mind.
3. Harmonious Development Aim. Pestalozzi defined education as the harmonious
development of the head, heart, and hand. Gandhiji too stressed the need for developing
the body, mind, and spirit. According to a UNESCO study, “the physical, intellectual,
emotional and ethical integration of the individual into a complete man/woman is the
fundamental aim of education.”
4. Complete Living Aim. Complete living aim was formulated by Herbert Spencer.
According to him complete living consists of five groups of activities. They are (i) self
–preservation (ii) securing a vocation (iii) being a worthy member of his home (iv)
contributing one’s best to the society, and (v) utilizing leisure time profitably.
5. Character Aim. Dewey stressed the formation of character as a comprehensive aim
of school instruction. The aim of living is the ever evolving process of perfecting,
maturing, and refining. Education should elevate man from the brutal level to the human
level. To Gandhiji, character building was an important aim of education.
6. Individual Aim. Sir Percy Nunn, Rousseau, and Herbert have all advocated the
individual aim in education. According to Percy Nunn, “Nothing goods enters into the
human world except in and through the free activities of individual men and women
and that educational practice must shape the individual. Education should give scope to
develop the inborn potentials through maximum freedom.” The progress of mankind is
due to great individuals. The school should therefore aim at the full and unimpeded
development of all the innate abilities of the individual. It should cater to the physical,
intellectual, social, emotional, and moral development of the child.
Whatever is acquired in human life is the result of education. When a child is born he
has no knowledge of his surroundings. Gradually he comes to recognise his
environment by using the sense organs and by coming in contact with other people.
Many ideas and habits he learns merely by observing others.
Individual aims of education include – development of natural abilities,
character-building, development of personality, preparation for adult life, sublimation
and control of basic instincts, and proper use of leisure time, etc.
7. Social Aim. Education is the process of socialization. Education is for the society
and of the society. It prepares the individuals to play different roles in society. The

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function of education is for the welfare of the state. Society is the book which pupils
should study in schools. The school itself is a cross section of the society, and active
participation in school life should be the method of learning. According to Dewey and
Bagley, education should aim at making each individual socially efficient. A socially
efficient individual is able to earn his livelihood; he is not a drag on society; he is a
good citizen and has the intelligence to understand and appreciate the world; he is ready
to dedicate himself to the ideals of his society.
Social aims of education include – the creation of the sense of citizenship,
development of a sense of community involvement, protection and increase of culture
and civilization, increasing consciousness of other cultures, encouragement to social
welfare, national development, developing national integration, and international
understanding.
Individuals cannot develop in a vacuum. According to John Adams,
“Individuality requires a social medium to grow.” And T.P. Nunn says,” Individuality
develops in a social environment.”
Let us analyze the great words of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, “The goal of
education is not merely to produce good individuals, but to turn our individuals who
understand their social responsibilities as integral elements of the society in which they
live.” As it means, education is an integral part of human life. It is the basic condition
for the development of a whole man and a vital instrument for accelerating the
wellbeing and prosperity by the light of education.
8. National Aim of Education: Many educationists are of the view that apart from
individual or social aims, the national aims of education are above all. It does not pertain
to any individual or society wherein it pertains to a nation, to its integrity and
sovereignty. These may be as follows:
λ To foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity.
λ To develop democratic values in the people.
λ To promote social, economic, technological, and industrial needs for national
development.
− Social needs: Prepare children for the changes in attitudes and relationships
which are necessary for the smooth process of a rapidly developing modern
economy.

− Economic needs: Produce citizens with skills, knowledge, expertise and
personal qualities that are required to support the growing economy.
− Technological and industrial needs: Provide the learners with the necessary
skills and attitudes for industrial development.
− To promote sound social, moral, and spiritual values.
λ To promote respect for and development of India’s rich and varied cultures.
λ To promote international consciousness and foster national integration.
λ To promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental
protection.
λ To develop physical and human resources for the Country.
9. Ultimate and Immediate Aims of Education
Education helps us to achieve two types of aims in our life. First is to achieve
the immediate aim of education and the other is to achieve the ultimate aim of
education. Immediate aim of education is narrow in sense whereas the ultimate aim of
education is very broad in nature. The former is achieved within a short duration of time
whereas the latter is achieved in a long duration. It is sometimes very difficult to achieve
the ultimate aim of education.
1.6. NATURE OF EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE
1.6.1. Discipline
Academic discipline/field of study is a branch of knowledge that is taught and
researched at the College or University level.
Discipline is defined and recognized by the academic journal in which research
is published and by the learned society and academic departments or facilities.
It describes types of knowledge, expertise, skill, people, projects, and
communities' problem challenged studies. Inquiry approaches and research areas that
are associated with academic areas of study.
For example, the branches of science are commonly referred to as the scientific
disciplines e.g.: physics and gravitation is strongly associated with that disciplinary
knowledge.
Academic discipline has several branches or sub disciplines that leads to co-
evolve with the system of professions that may be said to own knowledge in a particular
disciplinary area.

1.6.2. Why is Education a Discipline?
To become a discipline academia a subject must be professional enough. A
discipline has its own independent language system and its own professional
techniques. It means that the discipline should have its own theory & practice.
This particular language system divides the people into two. One is an expert
and the other is a layman. In medicine, the expert is a doctor and in education, the expert
is an educationalist.
1.6.3. Reason for considering education as a discipline
❖ It has a well-defined function.
Education as a discipline has clearly defined objectives & purpose. It is for the
development of individuals and the growth of society.
❖ Its scope and subject matter is well defined.
Education as a discipline has both theoretical and practical aspects.
Theoretical aspects include philosophical, curriculum, instructional, learning,
sociology, and anthropology practical aspects include policy making and edectism.
Practitioners of education require skills, knowledge, and attitude in the
discipline. Hence, the subject of education can be considered as a pure discipline as an
applied discipline.
Education is purposive- There is a definite purpose of all educational activity.
1.6.4. Development of Education as a Discipline
Education as an academic discipline was emerged in the second half of the
19th
century, with the inception of Teachers College, Columbia University.
Modern, teachers’ colleges and modern departments, schools or faculties of
education within universities emerged the curricula of these institutions lead to the
improvement of schools; school systems, and the improved learning of individuals and
groups.
Education as a discipline and subject of study made its first entry into a
university in India in 1971 in the University of Calcutta.
A second landmark was in 1936 when the Bombay University. Instituted an
M.Ed. Course in 1943. The first Ph.D. Degree in education was awarded by Bombay
University.
1.6.5. Major Focal Area of Education as a Discipline
Teacher education, education guidance, and counseling. Education planning
and management, Demographic education, comparative education. Special education.

Distance education inclusive and inter cultural education, curriculum development.
Educational measurement and evaluation physical education, computer education,
peace education, value education, sex education.
1.6.6. Nature of Education as a Discipline
Education is a comprehensive term and it reflects one’s day to day life and is an
essential aspect for perfect balanced personality development. On the other hand, the
meaning of education can be understood from a narrower broader point of view.
Education in the narrower sense means. Conscious and deliberate process, modifies the
behavior of the learner and brings about in the education. Specific knowledge and skills.
Such an education is confined to school and university instructions whatever takes place
in a school and whatever influences child behavior is considered education.
In a broader point of view, education is a lifelong process. It starts with
conception and ends with death (womb to tomb process). It is preparation for life
through life experiences. Here education is not limited in classroom teaching or
training.
According to Charlotte Mason, “Education is an atmosphere, a discipline, and
a life”.
Following are the chief characteristics of education as a discipline.
1. Education is purposive
There is a definite purpose to all educational objectives.
2. Education is deliberate
Education involves special care and guidance. The process of education is not
any conscious but also deliberate. The educator is fully aware of the failure that his aim
is to develop the personality of the child alone. Definite line through the modification
of his behavior.
3. Education is drawing out and bringing up process
Different meanings of education highlight that education is the process of bring
out the innate potentialities of the child. Education is an active and dynamic process by
which modifications are brought about in the behavior of an individual.
4. Education is knowledge as well as experience
Education is not only simply acquiring different types of knowledge but it
involves real life experiences. Human progress through the ages has been made possible
through the increase and diffusion of knowledge.

5. Education is liberal and vocational
Education can be considered as the liberal process and later it will help the child
to train in a particular vocation. Education is meaningful only when it aims at some
employment. Modern democratic education has placed vocational aim in its forefront.
6. For the Good of the individual and welfare of the society
The purpose of education 18 wellbeing of the individual and welfare of the
society and a synthesis of individual and society. Education is called a force for social
development which brings improvement in every aspect in the society.
7. Stabilizer, conservator, and reconstructionist
Education helps to conserve, stabilize and reform society and culture.
8. Education is planned
Education is not hap hazed. It is planned and systematic. If refers to transacting
its activities through a systematic institution and regulation.
9. Education is lifelong
Education starts from the time of conception and goes until death. Education
from cradle to grave as sometimes said. Education is lifelong. Process because of every
stage of life of an individual. Is important from an educational point of view.
10. Education is influence exerted
Education is for mature persons. (Teachers, Parents, Adults) influence children.
11. Education is balanced development
Education is concerned with the development of all the facilities of the child.
12. Education is bipolar
Education is the process in which both teacher and pupil influence each other
and the personality of the educator modifies. The behavior of the educand and in turn
is affected by the personality of the educand.
13. Education is tripolar
Education involves the teacher of the subject matter.
14. Education is psychological as well as social
The endowments or the capacities of the child – his needs interest, etc must be
interpreted and developed in a social setting
15. Education is growth
Education modifies the behaviour of the child, Human behaviour is modified
and improved through the educational process.

16. Education is power
Education is power and treasure in human beings through which he is entitled,
as the supreme master on earth. Education is a lifelong process.
Therefore, the role of education is countless for a perfect society and man it is
necessary for every society and nation to bring histolic. Happiness and prosperity to its
individuals.
1.7. TYPES OF EDUCATION
The process of education can be classified into three categories. They are formal
education in formal education and non-formal education.
1.7.1. Formal Education
Formal education in which the teachers face each other in a classroom situation
on a regular and continuous basis and predetermined syllabus according to time table,
source of promotion to next class after passing the previous one. Take a public
examination at the end of the course and receive a certificate. It is legally
institutionalised and rigid; it has forced point of entry and cut. It is motivated by
employment opportunities. It corresponds to the education process normally adopted
by our schools and universities. Formal Education corresponds to a systematic,
organized education model, structured and administered according to a given set of laws
and norms, presenting a rather rigid curriculum as regards objectives, content, and
methodology. It is characterized by a continuous education process, which necessarily
involves the teacher, the students, and the institution.

Formal education has the following characteristics:
λ Education is imparted by formal institutes like Schools, Colleges, and
Universities.
Though the main centers of formal education are School or Colleges, library,
museum, zoo, picture galleries, lectures, symposia, etc. serve as agencies of
formal education.
λ Definite curriculum and courses of studies are framed to teach the students
and definite duration of years required to complete the courses.
λ Proper time schedule prepared for day to day personalised teaching and
semester or yearly planning of academic sessions are implemented.
λ Both teacher and the students meet in a venue like the classroom for
personalised teaching.
λ Attendance of teachers as well as the students is taken for formal record and
completing the Courses.
λ Formal evaluation system (both internal and external) is implemented to
assess the performance of the learners. Both continuous and Term End
Examination are used for evaluating the performance of the students. Proper
certification is done by the Board/University for awarding the degrees or
diplomas to the students.
λ On the basis of the result, the students are promoted to higher classes or pursue
higher degrees.
1.7.2. Informal Education
The education received in an indirect manner is called Informal education.
Some people call it individual or cultural education; it has no anticipated goal. Formal
planning and rigid organization is a lifelong process. The home, peer group, playmates,
mass media, etc. for example, the son of a farmer acquires knowledge about farming
from his father. In informal education, experiences are unstructured and indefinite.
The characteristics of informal education are as follows:
λ Informal education is also called natural or incidental education.
λ No formal or non-formal institute is required to provide informal education.
λ For informal education, there is no need of any curriculum, methods of
teaching, teachers/mentors, and place of teaching.
λ Education and experiences acquired during travel, interaction with people,
family discourses, community, and social dealings, interaction within the

environment, neighbourhoods, playmates, cultural and religious activities are
necessarily informal education. Informal education supports formal as well as
non-formal education.
λ Informal education does not provide degrees or diplomas, it simply enriches
by filling the gaps of formal and non-formal education.
λ Informal education may comprise activities like storytelling, group
discussions, reading books on your interests, listening to radio broadcasting or
watching educational Television programmes, visits to zoos, museums,
educational fairs, and scientific exhibitions, attending lectures and conferences,
etc.
Informal education for instance comprises the following activities:
● Visit museums or to scientific and other fairs and exhibits, etc.
● Listening to radio broadcasting or watching TV programs on educational or
scientific themes.
● Reading texts on sciences, education, technology, etc. In journals and
magazines.
● Participating in scientific contests.
● Attending lectures and conferences.
1.7.3. Non Formal Education
This group includes the school dropout, the employed or working person, those
living away from the additional institutions, housewives, related persons. Non formal
education is not a substitute or parallel to the formal education. We need Formal and
Non formal education system supplementing each other Non-formal education to deter
from Formal and informal education.
The characteristics of Non-Formal Education are as follows:
λ Non-formal education endowed with flexible curricula, time schedule, choices of
subjects, and the place of education.
λ It does not necessarily require daily teacher-student interaction like formal
education.
λ Education is imparted in distance mode like the Open and Distance Learning
system, offered by the Open Schools and Open Universities, even the distance
education departments of the regular institutes also offer non-formal
courses/education.

λ Like formal education, non-formal education has a curriculum and uses a variety
of methods of teaching and mode of communication.
λ The gravity and quality of instruction both for formal and nonformal education
are the same.
λ The timing of regular classes in non-formal education is usually conducted on
weekends (Saturday/Sunday) or during the vacations.
λ Multimedia communication systems like Print (Self Learning Materials) and non-
print (Audio/Video) materials, radio, television, teleconferencing, interactive radio
counseling, online learning, etc. are popularly used as a medium of instruction in
non-formal education.
λ In India, institutes like Indira Gandhi National Open University, National Open
Schooling, and the State Level Open Education Institutes provide non-formal
education.
λ Like formal education, degrees awarded and Certification are also done in non-
formal education.
1.8. LEVELS OF EDUCATION
⮚ Pre-Primary Education
⮚ Primary Education
⮚ Secondary Education
⮚ Senior Secondary Education
⮚ Higher Education
⮚ Professional Education
⮚ Distance Education
⮚ Open/Optional Education

1.8.1. Pre-Primary Education
This is the initial stage of organized instruction; it is school or center-based and
is designed for children aged at least three years. Also referred to as Kindergarten and
currently, most kindergartens are private-run. Public kindergartens are usually affiliated
to primary schools. Pupils aged four to six are admitted for 1-2 years of schooling.
Pre-primary education is known by various names such as nursery education,
kindergarten education Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE). Nursery and
Kindergarten are in fact western system of Pre-primary education which we are trying
to. Adopt into the Indian system. Here children are taught how to do develop basic
skills.
The pre-primary education in India is also known as Kindergarten. Kindergarten, a term
created by Mr. Friedrich Frobel in 1837, which means "children's garden". Pre-primary
education helps children become more independent and confident as well as promote
the all-round development of the children. He establishes kindergarten through songs
and gifts. In India, Gandhiji planned Pre-basic education. Kindergarten Montessori,
Nursery, pre-basic school, Day Care Centers, Balawadis. etc. are examples.
1.8.2. Primary Education
Elementary or primary education is the first type of formal education most
people encounter. Primary education begins between five and seven years of age, is the
start of compulsory education where it exists, and generally covers six years of full-
time schooling. This is actually the first level in the Education ladder. The importance
of primary education is recognized as it lays the foundation for lifelong learning. It has
been found that the child develops significantly in physical, cognitive, social, and
emotional aspects in the early years, and its experiences deeply influence its disposition
for learning. Primary schools develop basic skills and social behavior by games,
exercises, music, and simple handicrafts.
The seven foundation learning areas of primary education are thinking,
communicating, sense of self and others, health and physical understanding, social
living and learning, cultural understanding, and understanding the environments. They
teach basic literacy skills such as reading and writing, as well as mathematics, history,
science, and many other topics. To graduate, students are required to pass standardized
testing that meets applicable regulatory or funding requirements.

The elementary stage of formal educational set up covers primary education; it
is the stage when the child starts reading. Formal instruction in an institution for
children having 6-8 years of schooling that usually start from the age of 5 or 6. The
main aim of primary education is to establish functions in a variety of subjects such as
Science, Mathematics, Social science.
1.8.3. Secondary Education
Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education.
Secondary level education is like a bridge between elementary and higher education. It
prepares young students between the age group of 12 and 18 for entry into higher
education. The main focus of the curriculum at this level is to prepare students for
employment, give instruction in functional academics, and teach them adaptive skills.
The social and interpersonal skills are developed during this phase of education.
Lower Secondary Education – continues the basic programs of the primary level,
although teaching is typically more subject-focused. Usually, the end of this level
coincides with the end of compulsory education. It is the final stage of education in
school primary education ends with VII then after entering the Secondary and Higher
Secondary stage. It starts with VIII to end with XII.
1.8.4. Senior Secondary Education
Senior Secondary Education – generally begins at the end of compulsory
education. The entrance age is typically 15 or 16 years. Entrance qualifications (end of
compulsory education) and other minimum entry requirements are usually needed.
Instruction is often more subject-oriented and the typical duration varies from two to
five years.
1.8.5. Higher Education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of
learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of
technology. Higher education also includes certain collegiate-level institutions, such as
vocational schools, trade schools, and career colleges that award academic degrees or
professional certifications. Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting

applied for work (e.g. in medical schools and dental schools), and social services
activities of universities.
Higher education follows secondary education. Students take academic courses
and are awarded undergraduate, masters, and doctorate degrees. Higher education
facilities may also offer professional degrees – for instance, law, medicine, or dentistry
degrees. Typical examples are programs designed to prepare pupils for doctorate
studies or programs designed to prepare pupils for direct labor market entry.
Higher education is a non-compulsory educational level which comprises
undergraduate and postgraduate studies. With vocational education training, usually, a
person needs to be admitted to a college or a university to receive higher education.
1.8.6. Professional Education
Professional education is a formal specialized training about a particular
profession in which learners are taught the central concepts, principles, and techniques,
and how these are applied in real practice, and the learners also acquire the necessary
competencies needed for proper practice and behaviour.
Professional education is a formalized approach to specialized training in a
professional school through which participants acquire content knowledge and learn to
apply techniques. Although content is what the participant is expected to learn by
attending professional school, such an education also helps the participant acquire the
competencies needed for proper practice and behavior. Some common goals of
professional education include incorporating the knowledge and values basic to a
professional discipline; understanding the central concepts, principles, and techniques
applied in practice; attaining a level of competence necessary for responsible entry into
professional practice; and accepting responsibility for the continued development of
competence. It is designed to produce responsible professionals and then to ensure their
continuing competence in the profession by helping them recognize and understand the
significance of advancing professional knowledge and improving standards of practice.
It involves the translation of learning to practice and is intended to prevent occupations
and professionals from becoming obsolete.
1.8.7. Distance Education
Distance education courses are basically correspondence courses that
individuals can obtain by not attending regular classes. Students pursuing distance

learning education need not worry concerning the course contents, mode of
examination, and duration of the course or the degree as it’s going to be very same as
awarded to regular students. Distance education is extremely advantageous for students
who wish to pursue their higher studies, but do not get enough time to do this. These
management programs may be taken up by people who stay at remote places, workers,
housewives, and even working professionals, who because for one or another reason
are not able to take up a regular program.
Distance education provided by institutes is controlled by the Distance
Education Council of India. Distance education is helpful to those who cannot join
regular schools or colleges.
1. At the school level, the National Institute of Open Schooling offers education
through distance learning.
2. While, at the college or university level, Open universities provide distance
education.
1.8.8. Open/Optional Education
Open education is an attitude, a practice, and a method of teaching that inspires
inquiry, equal access to course materials, and sharing lessons and materials with the
wider community. At the center of open education is the belief that education is
strengthened when shared openly. Open education relies on open educational resources
(OER) and open licensing. Open education is a philosophy about the way people should
produce, share, and build on knowledge. Proponents of open education believe
everyone in the world should have access to high-quality educational experiences and
resources, and they work to eliminate barriers to this goal. Such barriers might include
high monetary costs, outdated or obsolete materials, and legal mechanisms that prevent
collaboration among scholars and educators.
Promoting collaboration is central to open education. As the Open Education
Consortium says: "sharing is probably the most basic characteristic of education:
education is sharing knowledge, insights, and information with others, upon which new
knowledge, skills, ideas, and understanding can be built."
Open educational resources (OERs) are learning materials that can be modified
and enhanced because their creators have given others permission to do so. The
individuals or organizations that create OERs—which can include materials like

presentation slides, podcasts, syllabi, images, lesson plans, lecture videos, maps,
worksheets, and even entire textbooks—waive some (if not all) of the copyright
associated with their works, typically via legal tools like Creative Commons licenses,
so others can freely access, reuse, translate, and modify them.
Optional education programmes serve students with attendance problems and/or
dropouts up to and including those who are 21 years of age and provide prevention and
intervention services and/or optional education. Programs which primarily provide
prevention and intervention services integrate resources of the school and community
to meet the needs of the students and parents. Optional education programs serve as
part-time or full-time options to regular school attendance and offer modified
instructional programs or other services designed to prevent students from dropping out
of school.
The Optional Learning feature to offer users extra training, without requiring
that they complete the training. Offering optional learning helps your users be more
active in their security awareness training by giving them the option to choose what
training they would like to take. The training content we choose to make optional will
be added to the Library tab of the Learner Experience. These at-home learning resources
are not teacher or school-specific and support a range of subject areas, interests, and
abilities. Completion is not required and materials should be considered supplemental.
As such, they will not be graded or collected.
1.9. AIMS AND PURPOSES OF EDUCATION DRAWN FROM
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION
Indian Constitution is one of the largest Constitutions in the world which
comprises 412 Articles and 12 Schedules. The Preamble of the Constitution outlines
the social philosophy and cultural ethos which should oversee all our educational
institutions. Right to Education (RTE) is one of the fundamental rights enshrined in the
Constitution of India. The table below enumerates the educational aims derived from
the constitution articles pertaining to education.
The Indian constitution provides specifies provisions for education in the
following major areas of education:

Provisions Article Aims
1.
Right of free and
compulsory education
45
To make education a right and to
provide free and compulsory
education to all the children at
appropriate age.
2. Right to education 21A
To provide free and compulsory
education
3. Education for women 15(1) (3)
To provide education without any
discrimination
4.
Promotion of education
and economic interests
of SC, ST, and other
weaker sections
46
To provide equal opportunity of
education to all the members of the
society.
5. Religious education
25,
28(1)(2)(3)
To provide religious education
6.
Education of
minorities, protection
of interests of
minorities
29
To bring equality among the
members of the society by
providing them the same platform
of learning, educating them, and
hence growing and contributing to
the productivity of the nation.
7.
Right of minorities to
establish and
administer educational
institutions
30
To provide stability and security to
the members of the society.
8.
Instruction in mother-
tongue at the primary
stage
350-A
To provide education to the
children in their mother tongue so
that they can construct

understanding in their own
language and learn easily
9. Promotion of Hindi 351
To offer opportunities to the
stakeholders to work in the
development and promotion of the
Hindi language.
10.
Education in union
territories
239
To provide the opportunity for
union territories
11.
Fundamental duty to
provide the opportunity
for education
51(A)
To provide the opportunity for
education
12.
It provides special
provision with respect
to educational grants
for the benefit of the
Anglo-Indian
community
337
To provide equal opportunity of
education to all the members of the
society.
Purposes:
1. Free and compulsory education Provision of early childhood care and education to
children below the age of six years: Article 45: The state shall endeavour to provide
early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of
six years.
2. Right to Education a) Article 21A- The state shall provide free and compulsory
education to all children of the age 6 to 14 years in such manner as the state may,
by law determine (86th amendments, Act 2002). b) 93rd Amendment (Primary
Education a Fundamental Right)- Now by the 93rd amendment of the constitution
the primary education has been made a 'Fundamental Right'. It has become a legal
right.
3. Education for women a) Article 15- This article is regarding no discrimination
against any citizen on grounds of sex, religion, race, place of birth. Article 15 (3) of

the constitution empowers the state to make any special provision for women and
this includes their education also. Article 15(1) provides that, the state shall not
discriminate against any citizen on grounds of sex, religion, race, place of birth.
4. Promotion of Education and Economic Interest of SC, ST and Other Weaker
Sections a) Article 46 - It lays down, "The state shall promote with special care the
educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in
particular, of the schedule castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them
from social injustice and all forms of exploitation". It is one of the directive
principles of state policy.
5. Provision for Religious Education a) Article 25- Right to Propagate Religion Article
25(1) of the constitution guarantees all the citizens a right of freedom of conscience
and the right to profess, practice, and propagate religion. b) Article 28 Freedom as
to attendance at religious instruction Article 28 relates to 'Freedom as to attendance
at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions'. This
article has three clauses. Article 28(1): states, no religious instruction shall be
provided in any educational institution wholly maintained out of state funds."
Article 28(2): states "Nothing in clause (1) shall apply to an educational institution
which is administered by the state but has been established under any endowment
or trust which requires that religious instruction shall be imparted in such
institution." Article 28(3): lays down "No person attending any educational
institution recognised by the state or receiving aid out of state funds shall be
required to take part in any religious instruction that may be imparted in such
institution or to attend any religious worship that may be conducted in such
institution or in any premises attached thereto unless such person or, if such person
is a minor, his guardian has given a consent there to".
6. Protection of interests of minorities Article 29- Article 29 relates the protection of
interest of minorities it lays down (a) "Any section of the citizen residing in the
territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of
its own shall have the right to conserve the same. (b) "No citizen shall be denied
admission into any educational institution maintained by the state or receiving aid
out of state funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them".
7. Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions Article 30 It
relates to 'Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.
(a) "All minorities whether based on religion or language shall have right to

establish and administer educational institutions of their choice". (b) "The states
shall not discriminate against any educational institution in respect of grant in-aid,
on the ground that it is under the management of a minority whether based on
religion or language".
8. Instruction in mother-tongue at the primary stage Article 350-A Article 350-A
relates to facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at the primary stage. It lay down
as, "It shall be the endeavor of every state and of every local authority with the state
to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary
stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups; and the
president may issue such directions to any state as he considers necessary or proper
for receiving the provision of such facilities. Article 350-B: provides for the
appointment of a special officer for linguistic minorities with the object of
investigating into the matter relating to safeguards provided for linguistic minorities
under the constitution.
9. Promotion of Hindi Article-351 Article 351 is related to the promotion of Hindi.
The constitution also provides for the development and propagation of the national
languages, Hindi. According to article 351, it is the special responsibility of the
centre to develop the national language i.e. Hindi so that it may serve as a medium
of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India. For this, there
is a directorate of Hindi in the Central Ministry of Home Affairs.
10. Education in the Union Territories Article-239 Article 239 of the constitution
states," Save as otherwise provided by Parliament by how, every Union Territory
shall be administered by the President acting to such extent as he thinks fit, through
an administrator to be appointed by him with such designation as he may specify."
This means that every union territory has its own education department and the
responsibility of education in union territory has been under union or centre
government.
11. Fundamental duties to provide the opportunity for education Article 51A Clause 'K'
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India who is parent or guardian to provide
opportunities for education to his child or as the case may be, wards between the
age of six and fourteen years.
12. It provides special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of the
Anglo-Indian community- Article 337. To provide equal opportunity of education
to all the members of the society.

1.10. EDUCATION AS A MEANS OF SOCIAL JUSTICE IN THE INDIAN
CONSTITUTION
1.10.1. Social Justice
Social justice means maintaining justice to the society. It simply means equality
in society, a socially just society, or enjoys equal benefits in the society. Social justice
means equality in society, however, many social and educational disadvantages have
not enjoyed their rights and not getting benefits under the ordinary law. Justice has not
been infringed by giving a special provision to the weaker section of the community. It
rather encourages a special provision to enjoy the social benefits. In Indian society,
some weaker sections like minorities and backward classes are neither equally enjoying
their rights, nor are they treated equally. They need to be given a special status to uplift
themselves so as to enjoy their rights in the society. So, empowering the weaker section
of the community is one of the most important ingredients of social justice.
1.10.2. Defining Social Justice
However, social justice has many definitions.
Andrew Haywood defines that: “Social justice thus stands for a morally defensible
distribution of benefits or rewards in society, evaluated in terms of wages, profits,
housing, medical care, welfare benefits and so forth”.
John Rawls’ principles of social justice are “they provide a way of assigning rights and
duties in the basic institutions of society and they define the appropriate distribution of
the benefits and burdens of social cooperation”.
While formal definitions for social justice vary in wording, there are
commonalities among them.
1. Equal rights
2. Equal opportunity
3. Equal treatment
With these core values in mind, we can define the phrase as such: Social justice
means equal rights, opportunity, and treatment for all.

1.10.3. Constitutional Provisions Relevant to Social Justice and Empowerment of
Vulnerable Sections
The Indian constitution has mentioned the word ‘Social Justice’ only in three
places. In Part IX of the constitution, (The Panchayats) article 243 G (a)&(b) and Part
IXA (The Municipalities) article 243W (i), the Indian constitution has expected the
Panchayats and Municipalities to bring social justice to the people. To maintain social
justice does not encourage giving anything in free, but aimed at providing opportunities
so as to enjoy the social benefits equally.
A) Constitutional Provisions
1. Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour.
2. Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.
3. Article 37: Application of the principles contained in this Part (DPSP).
4. Article 38: State to secure a social order for the promotion of the welfare of the
people.
5. Article 39: Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State.
6. Article 39A: Equal justice and free legal aid.
7. Article 46: Promotion of Educational and Economic interests of Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other weaker sections.
B) Social Safeguards
1. Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability
2. Article 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice, and propagation
of religion.
C) Political Safeguards
1. Article 330: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in
the House of the People.
2. Article 332: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in
the Legislative Assemblies of the States.
3. Article 334: Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after sixty
years.

4. Article 243D: Reservation of seats (in Panchayats).
5. Article 243T: Reservation of seats (in Municipalities).
D) Agency for Monitoring Safeguards
1. Article 338: National Commission for Scheduled Castes
1.11. CONSTITUTIONAL VALUES AND EDUCATION (PREAMBLE,
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES)
1.11.1. Indian Constitutional Values in Education
In its Preamble itself, the Constitution lays down four universal values:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political LIBERTY of thoughts, expression,
belief, faith and worship EQUALITY of status and of opportunity and to promote
among them all FRATERNITY, assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and
integrity of the nation.
The fundamental objectives enshrined in the constitution are Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity, and Justice.
Justice ensures that the freedom of one does not become tyranny for another. Justice to
be truly meaningful needs sharing of power, compassion towards the under-privileged,
and empathy towards the disadvantaged. An education of rights and duties becomes
important to ensure to fight for justice.
Liberty of thought and action is a fundamental value embedded in our Constitution. It
is the basis for creativity and exploration of new ideas and experiments that can advance
social progress. Respecting the rights of others to liberty of thought and action are the
hallmarks of a civilized society. Ensuring that this liberty of thought and action is not
used to belittle or diminish the beliefs and status of others is what constitutes a decent
society. Democracy creates the opportunity to pursue one’s chosen ends as well as
respect others’ rights to do so. In a diverse country like India, exercising freedom with
responsibility is a must for ensuring peace in the nation.
Equality is another value enshrined in the Constitution. Freedom and justice remain
mere words if equality is not ensured. It implies freedom from exploitation and ensuring
to provide opportunities for an individual’s development, irrespective of the
background, gender, cultural or socio-economic identity, and status.
Fraternity is at the heart of school, society, and nation. Social solidarity is a vital part
of a society that has a place for the aspirations of all members of society. Understanding

the importance of fraternity or solidarity and the knowledge that we all belong to a large
community, a nation, and the globe is also to discover our innate humanity. It is only if
we recognize our interdependence then we are empowered to help build a peaceful
nation and a world. The citizens need to internalize the principles of equality, justice,
and liberty to promote fraternity among all, regardless of religious beliefs, regional and
local diversity. As the Constitution encompasses the values for living in harmony with
self and one’s natural and social environment. It provides the baseline in working out
the framework of values to be nurtured in students. If values like truthfulness, sense of
responsibility, trustworthiness, loyalty, love, peace, respect for others, etc. are nurtured
right from the beginning, the efforts will go a long way to enable students to abide by
the Constitution and contribute to the larger health of society and nation at large. In
fact, promoting values at the school or societal level begins with the individual and the
individual in relation to the community, the larger society, nation, and the world.
India got Independence on15th August 1947. Constitution framed by the Law
Minister Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Constitution was adopted on November 26th,
1949. It
came into force on June 26th,
1950.
1.11.2. Preamble of the Constitution
The introductory part of the constitution is called the preamble of the
constitution. It states “We, the people of India having solemnly resolved to constitute
India into a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic to secure to all its
citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression,
belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote
among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and
integrity of the Nation”.
WE DO HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS
CONSTITUTION.
1.11.3. Fundamental Rights of Citizens
1. Right to Equality (Art 14-18)
2. Right to freedom (Art 19-22)

3. Right against Exploitation (Art 23-24)
4. Right to freedom of Religion (Art25-28
5. Cultural and educational right (Art 29-30)
6. Right to constitutional remedies (Art 32)
1. Right to Equality (Art 14-18)
Art14: Equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.
Art15: Prohibition of discrimination on religion, caste, sex, or place of birth.
Art16: Equality of opportunities in public employment.
Art17: Abolition of Untouchability.
Art 18: Abolition of (award) only to the citizen
2. Right to freedom (Art 19-22)
Art19: All citizens shall have the right to freedom of speech and expression to
form associations or unions to move freely throughout the territory of India to
practice any profession.
Art 20: Protection in respect of conviction for
offences. Art 21 Protection of life and personal
liberty
Art22: Deals with protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
3. Right against Exploitation (Art 23-24)
Art23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forces labour.
Art24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories etc.
4. Right to freedom of Religion(Art25-28)
Art 25: Freedom of free profession practice and propagation of religion.
Art 26: Freedom to manage religious affairs.
Art 27: Freedom for promotion of any particular
religion Art28: Freedom to attend any religious
instruction.
5. Cultural and educational right (Art 29-30)
Art29: Protection of language script and culture of

minorities. Art30: Right of minorities to establish
educational institutions.
6. Right to constitutional remedies (Art 32)
Right to move to the supreme court for the enforcement of fundamental Rights
1.11.4. Fundamental Duties
1. To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and instruction
2. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India.
3. To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
4. To safeguard public property and to adjust violence.
5. To develop the Scientific temper, humanism, and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
6. To defend the country and render National service
7. To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
8. To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers,
and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.
9. To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood among all the people
of India.
10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity
so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement.
1.11.5. Directive Principles of State Policy and Education
The Directive Principles of state policies in fact the directions given by the
constitution to respective governments to adopt a policy that is commensurate
(equivalent) and further the cause of social justice and create such situation and
circumstance in which every citizen has ample opportunities for self-fulfilment
development progress in socially economically politically and vocationally.

1.12. THE RIGHT TO FREE AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION 2010 (RTE)
AND INCLUSION
1.12.1. Right to Education Act (RTE, 2010)
The Right to Education Act 2009, also known as the RTE Act 2009, was enacted
by the Parliament of India on 4 August 2009. It describes modalities of the importance
of free and compulsory education for children aged between 6-14 years in India under
Article 21 (A) of the Constitution of India. This act came into effect on 1 April 2010
and made India one of the 135 countries to have made education a fundamental right
for every child. It prescribes minimum norms for elementary schools, prohibits
unrecognised schools from practice, and advocates against donation fees and interviews
of children at the time of admission. The Right to Education Act keeps a check on all
neighbourhoods through regular surveys and identifies children who are eligible for
receiving an education but do not have the means to.
1.12.2. Features of RTE Act
1. All children from age six to fourteen have a right to receive free and compulsory
education.
2. Children who could not continue their studies are eligible to join the standard
according to their age getting appropriate special training.
3. Children have the right to leave one school and join another school. This provision
is applicable only within government and aided schools.
4. Funding for implementing this Act is the responsibility of the Central and State
Government.
5.There should not be any discrimination against the disadvantaged groups and
weaker sections of the society.
6. Every child should be assured of quality education.
7. Teacher education, curriculum, and content should be implemented within a time
frame.
8. No screening test either for the child or the parent should be conducted.
9.No certificate of birth to prove age should be demanded at the time of admission.
10. No child should be held back or sent out before it completes its elementary
education.

11. No child should be given corporal punishment or mental agony by the school.
12. No private school should be started without the approval of the Government or
the authorised agency.
13. Government permission and recognition should not be granted to schools which
do not have the prescribed standards.
14. Duties of teachers: Regularity and punctuality in coming to school completing
portions of the syllabus within the allotted time assessing the learning ability of every
child and providing special instruction.
1.12.3. Inclusion in Education
Educational challenges have been prevalent at both the centre and states for
many years in India. The Right to Education Act 2009 maps out roles and
responsibilities for the centre, state, and all local bodies to rectify gaps in their education
system in order to enhance the quality of education in the country.
1. Compulsory and free education for all
It is obligatory for the Government to provide free and compulsory elementary
education to each and every child, in a neighbourhood school within 1 km, up to class
8 in India. No child is liable to pay fees or any other charges that may prevent him or
her from pursuing and completing elementary education. Free education also includes
the provisions of textbooks, uniforms, stationery items, and special educational material
for children with disabilities in order to reduce the burden of school expenses.
2. The benchmark mandate
The Right to Education Act lays down norms and standards relating to Pupil-
Teacher-Ratios (number of children per teacher), classrooms, separate toilets for girls
and boys, drinking water facility, number of school-working days, working hours of
teachers, etc. Each and every elementary school (Primary school + Middle School) in
India has to comply with this set of norms to maintain a minimum standard set by the
Right to Education Act.
3. Special provisions for special cases
The Right to Education Act mandates that an out of school child should be
admitted to an age-appropriate class and provided with special training to enable the
child to come up to an age-appropriate learning level.

4. Quantity and quality of teachers
The Right to Education Act provides for rational deployment of teachers by
ensuring that the specified Pupil-Teacher-Ratio is maintained in every school with no
urban-rural imbalance whatsoever. It also mandates appointing appropriately trained
teachers i.e. teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications.
5. Zero tolerance against discrimination and harassment
The Right to Education Act 2009 prohibits all kinds of physical punishment and
mental harassment, discrimination based on gender, caste, class, and religion, screening
procedures for admission of children capitation fee, private tuition centres, and
functioning of unrecognised schools.
The Right to Education (RTE) Forum’s Stocktaking Report 2014 suggested that
across the country, less than 10 percent of schools comply with all of the Right to
Education Act norms and standards. While the enactment of the Right to Education Act
2009 triggered significant improvements, concerns regarding the privatisation of
education remain. Educational inequalities have held a strong ground in India for many
years. While the Right to Education Act offers the first step towards an inclusive
education system in India, effective implementation of the same still remains to be a
challenge.
6. Ensuring all-round development of children
The Right to Education Act 2009 provides for the development of a curriculum,
which would ensure the all-around development of every child. Build a child’s
knowledge, human potential, and talent.
7. Improving learning outcomes to minimise detention
The Right to Education Act mandates that no child can be held back or expelled
from school till Class 8. To improve the performances of children in schools, the Right
to Education Act introduced the Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) system
in 2009 to ensure grade-appropriate learning outcomes in schools. Another reason why
this system was initiated was to evaluate every aspect of the child during their time in
school so that gaps could be identified and worked on well in time.
8. Monitoring compliance of RTE norms
School Management Committees (SMCs) play a crucial role in strengthening
participatory democracy and governance in elementary education. All schools covered
under the Right to Education Act 2009 are obligated to constitute a School Management
Committee consisting of a head teacher, local elected representative, parents,

community members, etc. The committees have been empowered to monitor the
functioning of schools and to prepare a school development plan.
9. Right to Education Act is justiciable
The Right to Education Act is justiciable and is backed by a Grievance
Redressal (GR) mechanism that allows people to take action against non-compliance
of provisions of the Right to Education Act 2009. To ensure all schools follow this
mandate, Oxfam India in collaboration with JOSH filed a complaint at the Central
Information Commission (CIC) in 2011 evoking Section 4 of the Right to Information
Act (RTI Act) 2005. Section 4 of the RTI Act is a proactive disclosure section
mandating all public authorities to share information with citizens about their
functioning. Since schools are public authorities, compliance to Section 4 was
demanded.
10. Creating inclusive spaces for all
The Right to Education Act 2009 mandates for all private schools to reserve 25
percent of their seats for children belonging to socially disadvantaged and economically
weaker sections. This provision of the Act is aimed at boosting social inclusion to
provide for a more just and equal nation.
1.12.4. Achievements of Right to Education Act, 2010
▪ The RTE Act has successfully managed to increase enrolment in the upper
primary level (Class 6-8).
▪ Stricter infrastructure norms resulted in improved school infrastructure, especially
in rural areas.
▪ More than 3.3 million students secured admission under the 25% quota norm
under RTE.
▪ It made education inclusive and accessible nationwide.
▪ Removal of “no detention policy” has brought accountability in the elementary
education system.
▪ The Government has also launched an integrated scheme, for school education
named as Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, which subsumes the three schemes of
school education:
o Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)

o Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
o Centrally Sponsored Scheme on Teacher Education (CSSTE).
Making the right to education a fundamental right took more than 6 decades
after independence. Now, the government and all stakeholders should focus on the
quality of education, and gradually move towards having a single educational system
and platform across the country for all sections of society in order to foster equality,
inclusion, and unity.
1.13. EDUCATION IN THE CONCURRENT LIST AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
1.13.1. Concurrent List
Concurrent list is a list of 52 items, and it includes the power to be considered
by both the Central and State governments. "If any provision of a law made by the
Legislature of a State is repugnant to any provision of a law made by Parliament which
Parliament is competent to enact, or to any provision of an existing law with respect to
one of the matters enumerated in the Concurrent list, then the law made by Parliament,
whether passed before or after the law made by the Legislature of such State, or as the
case may be, the existing law shall prevail and the law made by the Legislature of the
State shall, to the extent of the repugnancy, be void."
1.13.2. Education on the Concurrent list
Concurrent list encompasses items of concerns of both the centre and the states.
Both will legislate for items in the concurrent List. Education is part of the concurrent
List. This means policies related to education are legislated by central and state
governments in the form of a meaningful partnership.
1.13.3. Education in Concurrent list and its Implications
1. A Uniformity in Education Policy: Education System and its pattern should
be the same across all of India. This could only be possible when education is
made a concurrent subject. This ensures that the structure of education does not
vary from state to state.

2. Improvement in Standards: As a result of education is a concurrent subject,
research will advance throughout the nation. Due to this research studies are
going to be utilized better at both state and national level.
3. Education for emotional Integration: Education is the key force for the
production of emotional integration between all of the country. Educational
curriculum, strategies, goals, and priorities, etc. can include guidelines to both
teachers and learners so that they can use them towards the purpose of emotional
integration of the nation as a whole.
4. For better Discipline: Central government has the power to overrule the
decisions of state governments in case of disagreements. This power is given to
the central government for maintaining better discipline when it comes to
maintaining standards of education and better emotional integration throughout
the country.
5. Proper and better utilization of funds: The state receives funding from the
center for education but sometimes they spend it elsewhere, as has been noted.
The center must have a say in its use when the funds are distributed by the
central government for the betterment of schools and the education
infrastructure of states.
6. Quality Leadership from Central Government: Sometimes central
government is able to provide quality leadership in the form of direction and
supervision when it comes to the matters of education.
7. Better implementation of education policies: Better implementation of
policies related to education means the better implementation of education
policies in a systematic way for better results. If education is on the concurrent
list, the center will ensure that state governments are correctly implementing it.

8. For creating equalitarian policies: Our constitution provides equal rights to
each and every citizen in the society. For achieving equity and equality in
society education must be provided to all, as the constitution gives the right to
education to all.
Until 1976, education was a state subject with some provisions at the central
level. The 42nd amendment, 1976, was an about major and important changes to the
Indian constitution. It also affected the status of education by putting it on the
concurrent list. Making education a concurrent subject ensures that both the centre and
state can legislate on any aspect of education from primary to the university level.
In case of any dispute, legislation formed by the central government will have
overriding authority. By having education in the concurrent list, the centre can directly
implement any policy decisions in the states. So, the concurrent status of education
means that there is a partnership between the State government and central government
when it comes to Education policy making and implementation. This is a meaningful
and yet challenging task to accomplish.

C2 unit i education in contemporary India, Constitutional Context

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