General Psychology- Course Outline

1. Theories of Development

2. Theory of Cognitive Development
(John Piaget)
The Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget is one of the most influential figures in the
study of child development. He developed his cognitive-developmental theory based
on the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate
the world around them.
Piaget believed that as children grow and their brains develop, they move through four
distinct stages that are characterized by differences in thought processing. In his
research, he carefully observed children and presented them with problems to solve
that were related to object permanence, reversibility, deductive reasoning, transitivity,
and assimilation

3. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 years old)
• The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to age 2. It is characterized by the idea that
infants “think” by manipulating the world around them. This is done by using all five
senses: seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling.
• Children figure out ways to elicit responses by “doing”, such as pulling a lever on a
music box to hear a sound, placing a block in a bucket and pulling it back out, or
throwing an object to see what happens.
• More important, children achieve object permanence in this stage. Object
Permanence (8 months) is the ability to recognize that an object can exist even
when it’s no longer perceived or in one’s sight.

4. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)
• Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through
language and mental imagery.
• During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to
make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.
• A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet
capable of logical (problem solving) type of thought.
• Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that
non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.

5. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years old)
• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.
• Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that,
although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
• During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g. picture a ball of
plasticine returning to its original shape).
• During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel.

6. Formal Operational Stage (7-11 years old)
• Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried
out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and
perceptual constraints.
• During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to
think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).
• They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific
examples.
• Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if
asked ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour’s time? they could
speculate about many possible consequences.

7. Stages of Cognitive Development

9. Important Concepts
Schema
A schema, or scheme, is an
abstract concept proposed by
J. Piaget to refer to our, well,
abstract concepts. Schemas
(or schemata) are units of
understanding that can be
hierarchically categorized as
well as webbed into complex
relationships with one another.
Assimilation
Assimilation is the
cognitive process of fitting
new information into
existing cognitive
schemas, perceptions,
and understanding.
Accommodation
Psychologist Jean Piaget
defined accommodation as the
cognitive process of revising existing
cognitive schemas, perceptions, and
understanding so that new information
can be incorporated.

10. Psychosexual Development Theory
(Sigmund Freud)
Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during five
psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. During
each stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through different parts
of the body.
Fixation- a condition in which a portion of libido remains invested in one of the
psychosexual stages because of excessive frustration or gratification.
Erogenous Zone- characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to
stimulation.
The psychosexual energy, or libido was described as the driving force behind behavior.

11. Psychosexual Development Theory
Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.
The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation
through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become
less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed
the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can
result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.
.

12. Psychosexual Development Theory
.
The Anal Stage (1- 3 years)
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling
bladder and bowel movements.
The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn to control their bodily
needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for
people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.
If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive
personality.
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive
personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

13. Psychosexual Development Theory
.
The Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother
and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by
the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by
young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

14. Psychosexual Development Theory
.
The Latent Stage ( 6-Puberty)
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or dormant.
This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits
and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and
communication skills and self-confidence.
Freud believed that it was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase.
Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as
an adult.

15. Psychosexual Development Theory
.
Genital Stage (Puberty- Death)
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a
person's life.
If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-
balanced, warm, and caring.

16. Psychosexual Development Theory
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17. Psychosocial Development Theory
(Erik Erikson)
. Erikson believed that personality development happens over the entire course of a person’s life.
In the early 1960s, Erikson proposed a theory that describes eight distinct stages of
development. According to Erikson, in each stage people face new challenges, and the stage’s
outcome depends on how people handle these challenges. Erikson named the stages according
to these possible outcomes:

18. Psychosocial Development Theory
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19. Psychosocial Development Theory
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20. Psychosocial Development Theory
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21. Psychosocial Development Theory
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22. Psychosocial Development Theory
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23. Psychosocial Development Theory
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24. Theory of Moral Development
(Lawrence Kohlberg)
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Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses
on how children develop morality and moral reasoning.
Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral development occurs in a
series of six stages. The theory also suggests that moral logic is
primarily focused on seeking and maintaining justice.

25. Theory of Moral Development
(Lawrence Kohlberg)
.
Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is
externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority
figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional
morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions
regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external
consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment):
The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment
are especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of
expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this
stage see rules as fixed and absolute.7 Obeying the rules is important
because it is a way to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange):
At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development, children
account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how
they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that
the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s
needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but
only if it serves one's own interests.

26. Theory of Moral Development
(Lawrence Kohlberg)
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality
is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children
continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is
now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure
positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules
and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and
a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships):
Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this
stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development
is focused on living up to social expectations and
roles.7 There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and
consideration of how choices influence relationships
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Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order):
This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is
maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin
to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The
focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules,
doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

27. Theory of Moral Development
(Lawrence Kohlberg)
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
At this level of moral development, people develop an
understanding of abstract principles of morality. The two
stages at this level are:
Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas
of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the
next stage to begin to account for the differing values,
opinions, and beliefs of other people.7 Rules of law are
important for maintaining a society, but members of the
society should agree upon these standards.
Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of
moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and
abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these
internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws
and rules.

28. Theory of Moral Development
(Lawrence Kohlberg)

29. Attachment Theory
( John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth)
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Attachment theory is focused on the relationships and bonds between people,
particularly long-term relationships, including those between a parent and child
and between romantic partners.
Attachment is an emotional bond with another person. Bowlby believed that
the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a tremendous
impact that continues throughout life. He suggested that attachment also
serves to keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving the child's
chances of survival.

30. Attachment Theory
( John Bowlby)
.
Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks):
Built-in signals, such as crying and cooing, bring a newborn
baby into close proximity with their caregiver. Babies recognize
a caretaker’s smell and voice and are comforted by these
things. When the caretaker picks up the baby or smiles at her,
the beginnings of attachment are forming. However, complete
attachment has not yet occurred, so the baby is still comfortable
being left with an unfamiliar person.

31. Attachment Theory
( John Bowlby)
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Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks to 8 months):
Attachment is getting stronger during this stage, and infants
respond differently to familiar people than they do to strangers.
For example, a 5-month-old baby will be more “talkative” with
his mother rather than with an uncle he sees only once a month.
He will also be calmed more quickly by the mother’s presence
than by the uncle’s. Separation anxiety (becoming upset when a
trusted caregiver leaves) has not set in yet but will be seen in
the next stage. Parents continue to build attachment by meeting
the baby’s basic needs for food, shelter, and comfort.

32. Attachment Theory
( John Bowlby)
.
Clear-cut attachment (8 months to 18 months):
Attachment to trusted caregivers continues to strengthen in this
stage, and separation anxiety is likely in a caregiver’s absence.
Toddlers generally want to be with their preferred caregiver at all
times, and they will follow the caretaker, climb on them, or
otherwise do things to keep the caregiver’s attention. Parents
and other important adults in the child’s life continue to
strengthen attachment by being receptive to the child’s needs
for attention, meeting basic needs, and playing with the child.

33. Attachment Theory
( John Bowlby)
.
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Formation of reciprocal attachment (18 months to 2 years):
Rapid language growth facilitates the understanding of new concepts, and children
begin to understand a parent’s coming and going. For example, children can now
understand that a parent returns home from work at a certain time each day, so
separation anxiety lessens—although the child may do things to gain extra time
with the parent prior to departure or to keep the parent from leaving. Parents can
help a child form secure attachment by explaining things to them, by being present
as much as possible, and by continuing to meet basic needs.

34. Attachment Theory
( Mary Ainsworth )
.
.
Ainsworth’s primary contribution to attachment theory comes in the form of
a study known as the Strange Situation. In this study, Ainsworth placed
children between the ages of 1 and 2 in unfamiliar situations to assess the
type and level of their attachment to their caregivers. Her research showed
that children generally use the parent as a secure base from which to
explore an unfamiliar room, and they become upset or uncomfortable when
the parent leaves and a new individual (not known to the child) enters the
room.

35. Types of Attachment
( Mary Ainsworth )
.
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•Secure: Children with this form of attachment use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the
room. They are comforted by the parent and show a clear preference for the caregiver (for example, by
protesting or avoiding the unfamiliar person).
•Avoidant: These children avoid contact with the caregiver and show little interest in play. They do not seem to
mind when the caregiver leaves, and they treat the stranger in a similar fashion to the caregiver. The child may
act in a rebellious manner and have lower self-esteem as they get older. The children of parents who do not
meet their basic needs or are inattentive may form avoidant attachment.
•Resistant/Ambivalent: Children with this form of attachment are unable to use the caregiver as a secure
base, and they seek out the caregiver prior to separation. They are both distressed by the caregiver’s
departure and angry when the caregiver returns. They are not easily calmed by the caregiver or the stranger,
and they feel anxiety with the caregiver due to inconsistent attachment patterns.

37. Sociocultural Development
( Lev Vygotsky )
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Sociocultural theory is an emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important
contributions that society makes to individual development. This theory stresses the interaction
between developing people and the culture in which they live. Sociocultural theory also
suggests that human learning is largely a social process.

38. Sociocultural Development
( Lev Vygotsky )
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FOUR ELEMENTARY MENTAL FUNCTIONS
 Attention
 Perception
 Sensation
 Memory

39. Sociocultural Development
( Lev Vygotsky )
. 3 Key Concepts of Theory of Social Development
Role of Social Interaction in Cognitive Development
The Social Development Theory (SDT) mainly asserts that social interaction has a vital
role in the cognitive development process. With this concept, Vygotsky's theory opposes
that of Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory because Piaget explains that a
person undergoes development first before he achieves learning, whereas Vygotsky
argues that social learning comes first before development. Through the Social
Development Theory, Vygotsky states that the cultural development of a child is firstly on
the social level called interpsychological, and secondly on the individual or personal level
called intrapsychological.
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40. Sociocultural Development
( Lev Vygotsky )
. 3 Key Concepts of Theory of Social Development
The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
The MKO is any person who has a higher level of ability or understanding than the
learner in terms of the task, process or concept at hand. Normally, when we think of an
MKO we refer to an older adult, a teacher or an expert. For example, a child learns
multiplication of numbers because his tutor teaches him well. The traditional MKO is an
older person; however, MKOs could also refer to our friends, younger people and even
electronic devices like computers and cellphones. For instance, you learn how to skate
because your daughter taught you this skill.
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41. Sociocultural Development
( Lev Vygotsky )
. 3 Key Concepts of Theory of Social Development
. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The ZPD is the distance between what is known and what is unknown by the learner. It is the
difference between the ability of learner to performer a specific task under the guidance of his
MKO and the learner`s ability to do that task independently. Basically, the theory explains that
learning occurs in ZPD
Zone of Proximal Development- refers to the things that we can do on our own and the things
we can do with adult, friend, technology (more knowledgeable other).
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