1 HGED 676 Student Development Theory II1 The grea.docx

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HGED 676: Student Development Theory II1
“The great aim of education is not knowledge, but action” ~
Herbert Spencer
Spring 2013 | Lago N102 | Tuesday & Thursday, 2:10-5:00
pm
Instructor Natasha N. Croom, Ph.D. | [email protected] |
515.294.4916 | N247E
TAs Lorraine Acker, M.S. | [email protected] (Section I)
Aja Holmes, M.S. | [email protected] (Section II)
Office Hours By appointment only (for all)
Accommodations
Students with (dis)abilities that may affect participation in this
course are invited to contact the Student
Disability Resources (SDR) office, located in Student Services
Building, Room 1076. The phone number is
515.294.7220. Additionally, students are encouraged to speak
with the instructor so that every plausible effort
can be made to arrange appropriate accommodations.
Course Objective, Organization, & Content
This is a topical discussion based course concerned with social
identity development theory. A stated goal of the

student affairs profession is to maximize student learning
through the facilitation of the many aspects of
personal and interpersonal development. To accomplish this
goal, student affairs professionals must have a clear
understanding of the developmental issues facing students and
the process by which development occurs. They
must also be aware of factors that effect development and be
able to work with individuals, groups, and
organizations within the diverse campus community to establish
environments conducive to the development of
students from a variety of backgrounds. Knowledge of theories
of social identity development and the
application of principles of social justice in college settings will
assist student affairs professionals in
accomplishing these goals.
This course is organized around concepts of individual level
social identity theories and systemic level theories
of intersectionality, privilege, and power. Each week the class
will be engaged in activities and discussion about
particular individual-level identity theories (race, ethnicity,
gender, sexual orientation, class, ability, spirituality)
with particular attention paid to how these identities intersect
and the social and systemic implications of
identity.
Class Expectations & Policies
Class will start promptly at 2:10 p.m. You are expected to be in
your seat and ready to begin class at this time.
Arriving late to class is disruptive and disrespectful to your
classmates and instructor(s). If a prior commitment
will affect your ability to arrive on time, please notify the
instructor prior to class.

Class participation is an expectation of all of us. Given that
participation and engagement are crucial to the
success of this course, you are expected to refrain from the use
of cell phones and laptops in class. The use of
cell phones, particularly text messaging is inappropriate and
disruptive. If your work or personal situations
require you to be “on call” please turn the ringer off and leave
the room to take a call. Please be cognizant that
1 This is a working syllabus and as such is subject to change at
the discretion of the instructor. If possible, advance notice
of any changes made will be provided.
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the vibrate function on your phone can disrupt the class
discussion as well. Laptops should only be used for
class purposes. If you are suspected of using your laptop for any
purpose other than class (e.g. email, web
surfing, Facebook), you will be asked to put the laptop away. If
this becomes a persistent problem, the privilege
of using laptops during class will be denied to all.
No incompletes will be given in this class except for major
emergencies (e.g., hospitalization) and only after
consultation with the instructor. Incompletes will not be granted
simply because more time is desired to
complete the assignments.
If you must hand in work late for a legitimate reason (e.g.,
personal illness, family illness) you must contact the
instructor (not the TA) to discuss the situation prior to the date
the assignment is due. No points will be

awarded for late assignments without prior permission. If you
must miss class for a legitimate reason (e.g.,
illness, family emergencies, work emergencies, court
appearances, conferences), please contact the instructor to
discuss the situation prior to class. Absences not cleared with
the instructor will be considered unexcused. No
more than two excused absences will be granted.
All students will be expected to live up to their expectations as
members of a community of scholars and
scholar-practitioners. As scholars, academic dishonesty of any
kind cannot and will not be tolerated. Please
refer to the Graduate Student Handbook regarding academic
integrity and honesty. The APA Publication
Manual also contains useful information. The instructor is
willing to answer any questions or clarify any
concerns (although this must be done before turning in any
written work or classroom presentations).
All written assignments are expected to conform to the
guidelines and reference formats specified in the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association
(6th ed.). All work must be word processed,
double-spaced, using 12-point font and one inch, left-justified
margins unless otherwise specified. Please staple
your papers in the upper left-hand corner. Written assignments
will be evaluated on content as well as the
technical quality of the writing. All written assignments should
be carefully proofread for spelling, grammar,
and syntax. Using each other as resources for proofing papers is
a good idea. Teaching assistants may be
available to review materials and provide content and technical
writing feedback. Rewrites will not be accepted
unless otherwise stated. It is your responsibility to ensure that
the technical aspects of your paper represent your
best work.

You are responsible for completing any required readings in
advance of the designated class session. Reading
groups are encouraged. Whether you choose to form reading
groups or not, all students will be expected to be
active and contributing participants to the class discussions.
Class discussions and activities will focus on
critique and application of the assigned material, not necessarily
review of material in the reading. We will
uncover significant, thought-provoking, and critical issues with
regard to social identities, student experiences,
intersectionality, and social justice. As a caveat, please be
mindful that this course is designed to provide
breadth around these issues and should not serve as your sole
effort toward depth and better understanding the
various topics discussed.
You will be expected to contribute actively and positively to the
class discussion. Actively engaging in
discussion about ideas and concepts is one means of learning
new material and considering your position with
regard to those ideas and concepts. Participation in the class is
designed to help you develop your verbal and
listening skills by encouraging active involvement in the
learning process. Participation does not equate to
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dominating the conversation for talking sake (in fact, talking for
the sake of talking often detracts from one's
participation). The following are examples of positive
participation:

• contributing interesting, insightful comments; presenting good
examples of concepts being discussed;
building on the comments of others; raising good questions;
being sensitive to your level of participation
and making attempts to increase or decrease it if necessary;
refraining from participation in private
conversations; using appropriate language and behavior that is
affirming; being aware of and sensitive to
the emotional impact of your statements; listening and
responding appropriately to others' comments;
attending all class meetings; being on time and remaining for
the duration of class
Course Competencies
In accordance with the ACPA and NASPA Professional
Competency Areas, this course is meant to offer
content related to the following areas:
Student Learning and Development
1. Articulate theories and models that describe the development
of college students and the conditions and
practices that facilitate holistic development.
2. Articulate how differences of race, ethnicity, nationality,
class, gender, age, sexual orientation, gender
identity, disability, and religious belief can influence
development during the college years.
3. Identify and define types of theories (e.g., learning,
psychosocial and identity development, cognitive-
structural, typological, and environmental).
4. Identify the limitations in applying existing theories and

models to varying student demographic groups.
5. Articulate one’s own developmental journey and identify
one’s own informal theories of student
development and learning (also called “theories-in-use”) and
how they can be informed by formal
theories to enhance work with students.
6. Utilize theory-to-practice models to inform individual or unit
practice. (Intermediate)
7. Identify and take advantage of opportunities for curriculum
and program development and construct,
where appropriate, in order to encourage continual learning and
developmental growth. (Intermediate)
Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion
1. Integrate cultural knowledge with specific and relevant
diverse issues on campus.
2. Assess and address one’s own awareness of EDI, and
articulate one’s own differences and similarities
with others.
3. Demonstrate personal skills associated with EDI by
participating in activities that challenge one’s
beliefs.
4. Interact with diverse individuals and implement programs,
services, and activities that reflect an
understanding and appreciation of cultural and human
differences.
5. Recognize the intersectionality of diverse identities
possessed by an individual.
6. Recognize social systems and their influence on people of
diverse backgrounds.

7. Articulate a foundational understanding of social justice and
the role of higher education, the institution,
the department, the unit, and the individual in furthering its
goals.
8. Demonstrate fair treatment to all individuals and change
aspects of the environment that do not promote
fair treatment.
Personal Foundations
1. Identify key elements of one’s set of personal beliefs and
commitments (e.g., values, morals, goals,
desires, self-definitions), as well as the source of each (e.g.,
self, peers, family, or one or more larger
communities).
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2. Describe the importance of one’s professional and personal
life to self, and recognize the intersection of
each.
3. Articulate awareness and understanding of one’s attitudes,
values, beliefs, assumptions, biases, and
identity as it impacts one’s work with others; and take
responsibility to develop personal cultural skills
by participating in activities that challenge one’s beliefs.
4. Recognize the importance of reflection in personal and
professional development.
Advising and Helping

1. Exhibit active listening skills (e.g., appropriately establishing
interpersonal contact, paraphrasing,
perception checking, summarizing, questioning, encouraging,
avoid interrupting, clarifying).
2. Establish rapport with students, groups, colleagues, and
others.
3. Facilitate reflection to make meaning from experience.
4. Understand and use appropriate nonverbal communication
5. Challenge and encourage students and colleagues effectively.
6. Recognize the strengths and limitations of one’s own
worldview on communication with others (e.g.,
how terminology could either liberate or constrain others with
different gender identities, sexual
orientations, abilities, cultural backgrounds).
History, Philosophy, and Values
1. Demonstrate empathy and compassion for student needs.
Learning Artifacts & Evaluation
Point values will be assigned to each learning artifact based on
the following maximum values:
1. Reflective Self-Analysis Paper 15 points
2. Identity Theory Analysis Paper 20 points
3. Reflection Circle 15 points
4. Identity Project 50 points
• Reflective Journal (15 points)
• Final Journal Entry (25 points)
• Class Presentation (10 points)
Total Points 100 points

Final grades will be given in the form of letter grades; the
following numerical values will be used:
100-95 = A 94-91 = A- 90-88 = B+ 87-85 = B 84-81 = B- 80-
78 = C+ 77-75 = C
74-71 = C- Below 71 = F
An F = 0 will be awarded for any assignment not completed.
Learning Artifact Descriptions
Reflective Self-Analysis Paper
Rationale: Exploring aspects of your own identity and factors
that have contributed to how you see yourself is a
beginning step in making sense of theoretical concepts that will
be explored throughout the semester.
Examining your own identity can also help to sensitize you to
the role of various components of identity in the
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lives of others and the role that your own identity plays in your
interactions with individuals who are different
from you or seemingly similar.
Competencies: Student Learning and Development (5); Equity,
Diversity, and Inclusion (2); Personal
Foundations (1, 2, 3)
Assignment: Students should complete a 6-8 page paper
assessing their own identity development. In this paper

consider the following questions:
• What aspects of your social identity are most important to
you? Why?
• How have aspects of your identity influenced how you present
yourself to others?
• How have aspects of your identity influenced decisions you
have made?
• How have aspects of your identity influenced how you lead
your life?
• How have aspects of your identity influenced how others have
perceived you?
• What factors have influenced the development of your
identity?
• How has your identity evolved over the course of your life?
• What areas of your identity need further exploration?
Evaluative criteria: Papers will be evaluated on your ability to
insightfully and concisely respond to the
questions, and the technical quality of your writing.
Identity Theory Analysis Paper
Rationale: Much can be learned about identity from reading
essays written by members of various populations.
Reflecting on such literature in relation to the various
theoretical concepts and approaches we will be studying
this semester can deepen our understanding of the issues and
experiences individuals face as they interact with
others.
Competencies: Student Learning and Development (1, 2, 4, 6, 7)
Assignment: Students will select one of the biographical essays

from the list provided and write a short
analytical reflection paper (4-6 pages, not counting cover page
or references) about what they have learned
about identity from the essay. In the analytical reflection,
students should relate the content of the essay to
specific theoretical concepts that seem relevant from assigned
reading (citations and a reference page required).
Also, students should discuss how they might use what they
have learned from the essay and analysis in their
work with students.
Evaluative criteria: Papers will be evaluated on the clarity of
your insights concerning the essay as well as your
ability to use theoretical concepts to analyze the essay and your
ability to make connections to student affairs
practice. Thoughtful analysis, synthesis, and application are
expected. The technical quality of writing will also
be considered.
Reflection Circle
Rationale: Often in class, there is little opportunity to reflect on
the topic being discussed or to share your
feelings or reactions to the class discussion or to the reading
material. Such reflection is important if learning is
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to occur. It is also helpful for the instructor to know how
students perceive the class and for students to receive
feedback from the instructor on their perceptions.
Competencies: Student Learning and Development (5); Equity,

Diversity, and Inclusion (1, 2, 3, 5, 8); Personal
Foundations (1, 2, 3, 4); Advising and Helping (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6);
History, Philosophy, and Values (1)
Assignment: Students will participate in a weekly session
(outside of class time) with their assigned reflection
circle (RC) over the course of the semester. Students will meet
to process, discuss, and reflect upon the topics
addressed in class and reading materials. Each student should
maintain a reflection circle journal in which
weekly entries should be made. Throughout the semester, RC
journals will be collected randomly. It is the
responsibility of the group to ensure that you meet.
Evaluative criteria: Reflection circle members will have the
opportunity to evaluate their group members.
Additionally, journals will be evaluated on student’s ability to
address the following prompts:
• What was your overall reaction to this class and why;
• What did you learn about yourself during the class session;
• What feelings arose for you during class discussion and what
triggered them;
• What behaviors did you, the instructors or fellow classmates
demonstrate that you found distracting,
confusing, challenging, engaging;
• What concepts, if any, did you have trouble understanding or
applying;
• What enduring questions do you have;
• How would you incorporate this material into your practice?
Identity Project
Rationale: Theory only becomes meaningful within the context

of the lives of living people. This assignment
provides the opportunity for students to learn out about the
social identity development of students as they
experience it and to compare students’ perceptions and
experiences with aspects of the theories they are
studying. Moreover, this assignment will help to enhance
interpersonal skills and learn the value of one-on-one
interactions with students.
Competencies: Student Learning and Development (1, 2, 4, 5, 6,
7); Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion (1, 2, 3, 5,
6, 7, 8); Personal Foundations (1, 2, 3, 4); Advising and
Helping (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6); History, Philosophy, and
Values (1)
Assignment: This assignment involves three parts, (1)
interviewing a student, (2) journaling, and (3) a
presentation.
Part I: Students should identify one (1) undergraduate student
who is willing to participate in multiple interview
interactions with you throughout the semester. You will meet
with the selected students regularly (no less than 7
times) to discuss their identity experiences. You will have the
opportunity to learn how students are making
meaning of multiple aspects of their identities, particularly
given that we cover a wide spectrum of social
identities. After reading the theoretical material related to the
various social identities, you should generate
interview questions to pose during your meetings.
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Part II: You will prepare an ongoing journal to record your
experiences and reflections regarding your
interviews. Entries should represent your reflections prior to
your first interview, after completing each of your
interviews, and prior to your presentation. It is important to
maintain your journals. The instructors will request
that the journals be submitted at various points during the
semester to assess your progress. All entries should
be typed and dated, and when turned in contained within one
single document (with the exception of the final
entry-see below).
Part III: Students will give a 20-minute presentation on their
identity project. You will tell us about your
student, share your theoretically-informed interview findings
with the class, describe your overall experiences
with completing this project, key learning moments and your
assessment of how you will use what you learned
to inform student affairs practice. You should also be prepared
to respond to questions from the class.
Evaluative criteria: Journals will be evaluated on the basis of
your ability to identify emergent themes in your
student’s experiences, accurately describe and use theory, and
reflect upon your own learning in the process.
Thoughtful analysis, synthesis, and integration are expected.
The technical quality of your writing will also be
considered heavily in the final journal entry. The class
presentation will be evaluated on the student’s ability to
analyze findings from your interviews using the theoretical
concepts you have studied and to assess and
articulate your own learning as a result of completing this
project. Organization and clarity of presentation will
also be considered.

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Course Schedule & Readings
Week & Date Topic Learning Artifact Due
1 – Jan 15/17 Intro
2 – Jan 22/24 Social Justice/Privilege/Oppression/
MDI/Intersectionality
3 – Jan 29/31 Spirituality/Faith/Religion Reflective Analysis
Paper
4 – Feb 5/7 Class
5 – Feb 12/14 Ability
6 – Feb 19/21 Gender Identity
7 – Feb 26/28 Sexual Identity (I-DAYS)
8 – Mar 5/7 Classes Recessed (ACPA) Identity Theory Analysis
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9 – Mar 12/14 Race/Ethnicity
10 – Mar 19/21 Classes Recessed (NASPA/Spring Break)
11 – Mar 26/28 Race/Ethnicity
12 – Apr 2/4 Race/Ethnicity
15 – Apr 23/25 Ally Presentations | Identity Theory
Analysis II
16 – Apr 30/ May
2

“Dead Week” Presentations | Final Journal Entry
17 – May 7/9 Finals Presentations
The required books for this course are:
Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F. M., Patton, L. D., &
Renn, K. A. (2010). Student development in college: Theory,
research, and practice (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
APA. (2009). Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Week 1
(Part Four – Social Identity, pp. 227-231) (4p)
Manning, K. (May/June, 2009). Philosophical underpinnings of
student affairs work on
difference. About Campus, 14(2), 11-17. (6p)
Nash, R. (2010). “What is the best way to be a social justice
advocate”: Communication strategies
for effective social justice advocacy. About Campus, 15(2), 11-
19.
Torres, V., Jones, S. R., & Renn, K. A. (2009). Identity
development theories in student affairs origins, current status,
and
new approaches. Journal of College Student Development,
50(6), 577-596. (19p)
Hurtado, S. (2007). Linking diversity with the educational and
civic missions of higher education. The Review of Higher

Education, 30(2), 185-196. (11p)
Week 2
research, and practice (2nd. ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
(Ch. 13, pp. 233-244; 244-251) (15p)
Jones, S. R., & McEwen, M. K. (2000). A conceptual model of
multiple dimensions of identity. Journal of College
Student Development, 41, 405-413. (8p)
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Abes, E. S., Jones, S. R., & McEwen, M. K. (2007).
Reconceptualizing the model of multiple dimensions of identity:
The
role of meaning-making capacity in the construction of multiple
identities. Journal of College Student
Development, 48, 1-22.(21p)
Hill Collins, P. (1990). Intersecting Oppressions & Black
Feminist Thought in the Matrix of Domination (Handouts) (11p)
Young, I. M. (2000). Five faces of oppression. In M. Adams, W.
J. Blumenfeld, R. Castañeda, H. W. Hackmann, M. L.
Peters, & X. Zúñiga (Eds.), Readings for diversity and social
justice (pp. 35-49). New York: Routledge. (14p)
Reason, R. D., & Davis, T. L. (2005). Antecedents, precursors,
and concurrent concepts in the development of social

justice attitudes and actions. In R. D. Reason, E. M. Broido, T.
L. Davis, & N. J. Evans (Eds.), Developing social
justice allies. New Directions for Student Services, no. 110, pp.
5-15. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (10p)
Week 3
(Ch. 11, pp. 194-211) (17p)
Seifert, T. (2007). Understanding Christian privilege: Managing
the tensions of spiritual plurality. About Campus, 12 (2),
10-17. (7)
Lazarus Stewart, D., & Lozano, A. (2009). Difficult dialogues
at the intersections of race, culture, and religion. In S. K.
Watt, E. E. Fairchild, & K. M. Goodman (Eds.), Intersections of
religious privilege: Difficult dialogues and
student affairs practice. New Directions in Student Services, no.
125, pp. 23-31. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (8p)
Blumenfeld, W. J., & Klein, J. R. (2009). Working with Jewish
undergraduates. In S. K. Watt, E. E. Fairchild, & K. M.
Goodman (Eds.), Intersections of religious privilege: Difficult
dialogues and student affairs practice. New
Directions in Student Services, no. 125, pp. 33-38. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (5p)
Goodman, K. M., & Mueller, J. A. (2009). Invisible,
marginalized, and stigmatized: Understanding and addressing
the
needs of atheist students. In S. K. Watt, E. E. Fairchild, & K.
M. Goodman (Eds.), Intersections of religious

privilege: Difficult dialogues and student affairs practice. New
Directions in Student Services, no. 125, pp. 55-63.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (8p)
Ali, S. R., & Bagheri, E. (2009). Practical suggestions to
accommodate the needs of Muslim students on campus. In S. K.
Watt, E. E. Fairchild, & K. M. Goodman (Eds.), Intersections of
religious privilege: Difficult dialogues and
student affairs practice. New Directions in Student Services, no.
Week 4
Mantsios, G. (2003). Class in America: Myths and realities. In
M. S. Kimmel & A. L. Ferber (Eds.), Privilege: A reader
(pp. 33-50). Boulder, CO: Westview. (17p)
Oldfield, K. (2007). Humble and hopeful: Welcoming first-
generation poor and working-class students to college. About
Campus, 11(6), 2-12. (10p)
Oldfield, K. (2012). Still humble and hopeful: Two more
recommendations on welcoming first-generation poor and
working-class students to college. About Campus, 17(5), 2-13.
(11p)
Duffy, J. O. (2007). Invisibly at risk: Low-income students in a
middle- and upper-class world. About Campus, 12 (2), 18-
25. (7)
Schwartz, J. L., Donovan, J., & Guido-DiBrito, F. (2009).
Stories of social class: Self-identified Mexican male college
students crack the silence. Journal of College Student
Development, 50, 50-66. (16p)

Week 5
Evans, N. J., & Herriott, T. K. (2009). Philosophical and
theoretical approaches to disability. In J. L. Higbee & A. A.
Mitchell (Eds.), Making good on the promise: Student affairs
professionals with disabilities (pp. 27-40). Lanham,
MD: American College Personnel Association. (13p)
Riddell. S., Tinklin, T., & Wilson, A. (2005). Disabled students
in higher education: Perspectives on widening access and
changing policy. London, United Kingdom: Routledge. (Ch. 8:
Disabled students in higher education: Negotiating
identity, pp. 130-147) (17p)
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Belch, H. A. (2011). Understanding the experiences of students
with psychiatric disabilities: A foundation for creating
conditions of support and success. In M. S. Huger (Ed.),
Fostering the increased integration of students with
disabilities. New Directions for Student Services, no. 134, pp.
73-94. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. (21p)
McCarthy, D. (2007). Teaching self-advocacy to students with
disabilities. About Campus, 12(5), 10-16. (6p)
Week 6
(Ch. 18, pp. 327-344) (17p)
Bryant, A. N. (2003). Changes in attitudes toward women’s

roles: Predicting gender-role traditionalism among college
students. Sex Roles, 48(3/4), 131-142. (11p)
Edwards, K. E., & Jones, S. R. (2009). “Putting my man face
on”: A grounded theory of college men’s gender identity
development. Journal of College Student Development, 50, 210-
228. (18p)
Beemyn, B., Curtis, B., Davis, M., & Tubbs, N. J. (2005).
Transgender issues on college
campuses. In R. Sanlo (Ed.), Gender identity and sexual
orientation: Research, policy, and personal. New
Directions for Student Services, no. 111, pp. 49-60. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. (11p)
Week 7
(Ch. 17, pp. 305-326) (21p)
Feigenbaum, E. F. (2007). Heterosexual privilege: The political
and personal. Hypatia, 22(1), 1-9. (8p)
Harley, D. A., Nowak, T. M., Gassaway, L. J., & Savage, T. A.
(2002). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender college
students with disabilities: A look at multiple cultural identities.
Psychology in the Schools, 39, 525-538. (13p)
Wall, V. A., & Washington, J. (1991). Understanding gay and
lesbian students of color. In N. J. Evans & V. A. Wall
(Eds.), Beyond tolerance: Gays, lesbians and bisexuals on
campus (pp. 67-78). Washington, DC: American
College Personnel Association. (11p)

Mueller, J. A. & Cole, J. (2009). A qualitative examination of
heterosexual consciousness among
college students. Journal of College Student Development, 50,
320-336. (16p)
Week 9
research, and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (Ch. 14, pp.
252-254) (2p)
Patton, L. D., McEwen, M., Rendon, L., & Howard-Hamilton,
M. F. (2007). Critical race perspectives on theory in
student affairs. In S. R. Harper & L. D. Patton (Eds.),
Responding to the realities of race. New Directions for
Student Services, no. 120. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (14p)
Mather, P. C. (2008). Acknowledging racism. About Campus,
13(4), 27-29. (2p)
Wander, P. C., Martin, J. N., & Nakayama, T. K. (2008). The
roots of racial classification. In P. S. Rothenberg (Ed.),
White privilege: Essential readings on the other side of racism
(3rd ed., pp. 29-34). New York, NY: Worth. (5p)
Reason, R. D., & Evans, N. (2007). The complicated realities of
whiteness: From colorblind to racially-cognizant. In S. R.
Harper & L. D. Patton (Eds.), Responding to the realities of
race. New Directions for Student Services, no. 120,
67-75. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (8p)
Chaudhari, P., & Pizzolato, J. E. (2008). Understanding the

epistemology of ethnic identity development in multiethnic
college students. Journal of College Student Development, 49,
443-458. (15p)
Yosso, T. J. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race
theory discussion of community cultural wealth. Race
Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69-91. (22p)
Week 11
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research, and practice (2nd. ed.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
(Ch. 14 & 15, pp. 255 (Race Models paragraph);
265-266 (Kim’s Model); 271-277 (Ethnicity) (9p)
Lachica Buenavista, T., Jayakumar, U. M., & Misa-Escalante,
K. (2009). Contextualizing Asian American education
through critical race theory: An example of U.S. Pilipino
college student experiences. In S. D. Museus (Ed.),
Conducting research on Asian Americans in higher education.
New Directions for Institutional Research, no. 142,
pp. 69-81. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (12p)
Accapadi, M. M. (2012). Asian American identity
consciousness: A polycultural model. In D. Ching & A.
Agbayani
(Eds.), Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in higher
education: Research and perspectives on identity,
leadership, and success (pp. 57-94). Washington, DC: NASPA-

Student Affairs Administrators in Higher
Education.
Week 12
(Ch. 14 & 15, pp. 263-265 (Ferdman & Gallegos
Model); 266-267 (Horse Perspective); 277-284 (Ethnicity) (10p)
Okagaki, L., Helling, M. K., & Bingham, G. E. (2009).
American Indian college students’ ethnic identity and beliefs
about education. Journal of College Student Development, 50,
157-176. (19p)
Lowe, S. C. (2005). This is who I am: Experiences of Native
American students. In MJ T. Fox, S. C. Lowe, & G. S.
McClellan (Eds), Serving Native American students. New
Directions for Student Services, no. 109, pp. 33-40. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. (7p)
Horse, P. G. (2005). Native American identity. In MJ T. Fox, S.
C. Lowe, & G. S. McClellan (Eds), Serving Native
American students. New Directions for Student Services, no.
109, pp. 61-68. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
(7p)
Longerbeam, S. D., Sedlacek, W. E., & Alatorre, H. M. (2004).
In their own voices: Latino student retention. NASPA
Journal, 41(3), 538-550. (12p)
Villalpando, O. (2004). Practical considerations of critical race
theory and Latino critical theory for Latino college
students. In A. M. Ortiz (Ed.), Addressing the unique needs of

Latino American students. New Directions for
Student Services, no. 105, pp. 41-50. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass. (9p)
Vera, H., & De los Santos, E. (2005). Chicana identity
construction: Pushing the boundaries. Journal of Hispanic
Higher
Education, 4(2), 102-113. (9p)
Week 13
(Ch. 14 & 16, pp. 260-263 (Helms Model; Rowe,
Bennett, Atkinson Model); 288-304) (19p)
Scott, D. A., & Robinson, T. L. (2001). White male identity
development: The key model. Journal of Counseling and
Development, 79, 415-421. (6p)
McDermott, M., & Samson, F. L. (2005). White racial and
ethnic identity in the United States. Annual Review of
Sociology, 31, 245-261. (16p)
King. A. R. (2008). Student perspectives on multiracial identity.
In K. A. Renn & P. Shang (Eds.), Biracial and
multiracial students. New Directions for Student Services, no.
King, A. R. (2011). Environmental influences on the
development of female college students who identify as
multiracial/biracial-bisexual/pansexual. Journal of College
Student Development, 52(4), 440-455. (15p)

Week 14
12
research, and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (Ch. 14 &
15, pp. 250-260 (Cross & Fhagen-Smith Model);
284-287 (Ethnicity); 268-270) (15p)
Solórzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. (2000). Critical race
theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The
experiences of African American college students. The Journal
of Negro Education, 69 (1/2), 60-73. (13p)
Harper, S. R., & Nichols, A. H. (2008). Are they not all the
same? Racial heterogeneity among Black male
undergraduates. Journal of College Student Development, 49(3),
199-214. (15p)
Ritter, Z. (2012). Foreign students and tolerance – II. Inside
Higher Ed
Anderson, G. A., Carmichael, K. Y., Harper, T. J., & Huang, T.
(2009). International students at four-year institutions:
Developmental needs, issues, and strategies. In S. R. Harper &
S. J. Quaye (Eds.), Student engagement in higher
education: Theoretical perspectives and practical approaches for
diverse populations (pp.17-38). New York, NY:
Routledge. (21p)

Week 15
Broido, E. M., & Reason, R. D. (2005). The development of
social justice attitudes and actions: An overview of current
understandings. In R. D. Reason, E. M. Broido, T. L. Davis, &
N. J. Evans (Eds.), Developing social justice
allies. New Directions for Student Services, no. 110, pp. 15-28.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. (13p)
Edwards, K. E. (2006). Aspiring social justice ally identity
development: A conceptual model. NASPA Journal, 43 (4),
39-60. (21)
13
Identity Theory Analysis Paper: Autobiographical Essays
You will select one essay from this reading list as the basis for
your analysis papers. Readings are located on the
blackboard page in the folder titled “ Identity Theory Analysis
Readings.”
Race/Ethnicity
African American
Maria (1999). What is Black enough? In A. Garrod, J. V. Ward,
T. L. Robinson, & R. Kilkenny (Eds.), Souls looking

back: Life stories of growing up Black (pp.32-46). New York:
Routledge.
Rick (1999). Feeling the pressure to succeed. In A. Garrod, J.
V. Ward, T. L. Robinson, & R. Kilkenny (Eds.), Souls
looking back: Life stories of growing up Black (pp.218-230).
New York: Routledge.
Asian American
De la Fuente, J. (1999). An (Asian American) actor’s life. In P.
G. Min & R. Kim (Eds.), Struggle for ethnic identity:
Narratives by Asian American professionals (pp. 156-167).
Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press.
Chung, R. (1999). Reflections on a Korean American journey.
In P. Min & R. Kim (Eds.), Struggle for ethnic identity:
Narratives by Asian American professionals (pp. 59-68). Walnut
Creek, CA: AltaMira.
Latino/a
Navarrette, R., Jr. (1994). Playing the role. In A darker shade of
crimson: Odyssey of a Harvard Chicano (pp. 73-90).
New York: Bantam.
Ortiz Cofer, J. (1993). The myth of the Latin woman: I just met
a girl named Maria. In The Latin deli (pp. 148-154).
Athens, GA: The University of Georgia Press.
Multiracial
Álvarez, J. (1998). A White woman of color. In O’Hearn, C. C.
(Ed.), Half and half: Writers on growing up biracial and
bicultural (pp. 139-149). New York: Pantheon.
Durrow, H. (1994). The next generation. In L. Funderburg (Ed.),
Black, White, Other: Biracial Americans talk about race
and identity (pp. 351-359). New York: Morrow.

Native American/American Indian
Bennett, R. (1997). Why didn’t you teach me? In A. Garrod &
C. Larimore (Eds.), First person, first peoples: Native
American college graduates tell their life stories (pp. 136-153).
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Carey, E. (1997). I dance for me. In A. Garrod & C. Larimore
(Eds.), First person, first peoples: Native American college
graduates tell their life stories (pp. 115-135). Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.
White
Thompson, B. (1996). Time traveling and border crossing:
Reflections on White identity. In B. Thompson & S. Tyagi
(Eds.), Names we call home: Autobiography on racial identity
(pp. 93-109). New York: Routledge.
Indiana, G. (1998). Memories of a xenophobic boyhood. In L.
Bridwell-Bowles (Ed.), Identity matters: Rhetorics of
difference (pp. 74-80). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gender Identity
Rogers, J. (2000). Getting real at ISU: A campus transition. In
K. Howard & A. Stevens (Eds.), Out and about on campus
(pp. 12-18). Los Angeles: Alyson.
Pollitt, K. (1998). Are women morally superior to men?
Debunking “difference” feminism. In L. Bridwell-Bowles (Ed.),
Identity matters: Rhetorics of difference (pp. 191-202). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual

Wisener, S. (1998). Pretending to be. In S. L. Windmeyer & P.
W. Freeman (Eds.), Out on fraternity row: Personal
accounts of being gay in a college fraternity (pp. 125-130). New
York: Alyson.
Holland, J. A. (2000). How to find your major. In K. Howard &
A. Stevens (Eds.), Out and about on campus (pp.142-
153). Los Angeles: Alyson.
14
Spiritual Development
Alleyne, U. (1998). Atheism and me: Why I don’t believe in
God. In L. Bridwell-Bowles (Ed.), Identity matters:
Rhetorics of difference (pp. 274-279). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Whelen, J. P. (1998). How I pray now: A conversation. In L.
Bridwell-Bowles (Ed.), Identity matters: Rhetorics of
difference (pp. 420-426). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
(Dis)Ability
Meirs, N. (1998). On being a cripple. In L. Bridwell-Bowles
(Ed.), Identity matters: Rhetorics of difference (pp. 383-391).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
French, S. (2000). Equal opportunities – Yes, please. In M.
Adams, W. J. Blumenfeld, R. Castañeda, H. W. Hackmann,

M. L. Peters, & X. Zúñiga (Eds.), Readings for diversity and
social justice (pp. 364-366). New York: Routledge.
Social Class
Charlip, J. (1998). A real class act: Searching for identity in the
classless society. In L. Bridwell-Bowles (Ed.), Identity
matters: Rhetorics of difference (pp. 99-113). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
hooks, b. (2000). Where we stand: Class matters. New York:
Routledge. (Ch. 2: Coming to class consciousness, pp. 24-
37)
15
Identity Project: Journal Entry Prompts
Given that you will be conducting qualitative interviews, it is
crucial that you give careful thought to your own biases and
prior understandings of the identities you will discuss with
students. It is particularly important to approach each meeting
with questions that are well-constructed and respectful to
engage students in a way that elicits meaningful responses.
Throughout the interview process, ongoing reflection is
important to make meaning out of the information obtained and

to
enhance further interviewing. Following each interview, it is
important to thoughtfully consider what has been learned and
how this information can be conveyed.
Entry 1: Before your first interview.
Reflect on and respond to the following questions:
• What do you already believe/know about the social identities
that your participant possesses? What messages
have you heard/learned throughout your life? How were these
messages reinforced and/or challenged?
• How will these beliefs affect your interaction with your
student? How do they influence how you feel going into
the interview project? How will they influence the questions
you ask your student?
• Has other training or classes helped you to have a more
thoughtful understanding of your participant’s social
identities? How do they influence how you feel going into the
interview project? How will they influence the
questions you ask?
• Provide a list of 5–7 questions that will guide your initial
interview.
Throughout these interviews, attempt to discover how the

individuals see themselves with regard to their identity. How
has their identity changed (if it has)? What factors influenced
their development? How does their social identity affect
other aspects of their lives? How do their social identities
overlap and intersect? How do they see themselves in relation to
identities they do not possess?
Entries throughout the semester.
Reflect on and respond to the following questions:
• Relevant theory should guide the development of your
questions. Provide a list of questions that guided each
interview.
• What was the most surprising part of the interview? What
seemed different than what you expected based on your
previous knowledge/understanding or that might be expected
based on theory? What findings support the theory
you have studied? What findings challenge the theory? Be sure
to cite specific references to theory.
• How is the student making meaning of this particular identity?
What themes about identity development seem to
emerge from this interview? Support these with data (provide
direct quotations/summaries to support each theme).
• What questions seemed to work? What questions did not?
Why? For future entries, how will the emerging themes
change the questions you ask in the next interview?

16
• How are you feeling about this social identity following this
interview? Have you learned anything new that has
reinforced/challenged what you believed to be true? How do
you feel about interviewing?
Final Entry: Following your last interview, before your
presentation.
Your final journal entry should be presented in a formal paper.
This final entry will provide an opportunity for you to
reflect on what you learned as a result of this project, to
demonstrate your knowledge of the various theoretical
approaches you have studied, and to demonstrate your ability to
use theoretical concepts to understand and enhance
student development through student affairs practice.
In this final entry, please reflect on and respond to the
following questions:
• What overall themes related to identity development emerged
from the interviews you conducted? What evidence
supports these themes? How are these themes supported by the
theories read for class? How are they different?
• What key things have you learned about yourself as a result of

your participation in this project?
• How have your feelings and beliefs about social identities
changed/evolved/been reinforced by your participation
in the research project?
• Identify at least 3 theoretical concepts that emerged during
your analysis that influenced your development while
completing this project. Elaborate on how this learning will
help you become a better professional. How would
you specifically use each concept to guide your work in student
affairs practice (e.g., working with individual
students, developing programming, environmental design;
policy development).
Chapter 8Family and Identity
The American family dynamic of the twenty-first century is
fluid and evolving. Hollywood and traditional values offer us a
typical love story that develops between a man and woman,
followed by marriage, children, economic success, and a
happily-ever-after type of ending. Of course, the well-
documented reality is that many couples neither live happily
together nor ever after. In fact, couples are choosing
cohabitation without marriage and, increasingly, without
children. Meanwhile, a parent may be pushing the baby in the
stroller without a partner or, perhaps, with a partner of the same
sex. Some applaud these variations on the family; after all, they
argue, a loving family is a healthy one, and neither laws nor
social custom should attempt to dictate the bonds of love.
Equally passionate are those who decry these variations. They
claim that the collapse of the traditional (heterosexual, two-
parent) family structure has eroded “family values” and

instigated a contagion of social illnesses that threaten the moral
fiber of the country. Clearly, no single definition of the family
can be agreed upon; even so, most of us do agree upon the
primary importance of family in our individual lives and, as
adults, aspire to create a family of our own—however different
that family may be.
As you read the story, poems, and essays in this chapter, some
pieces undoubtedly will reinforce your assumptions and ideas
about family and identity, while others may provoke you to
question assumptions.
When you look to the past and to the future, how do you assess
the “state” of the family? And how do your experiences with
family shape your identity as an individual? As you read the
selections in this chapter, you may ask yourself what story you
have to tell and how it “connects [you] to a history” that shapes
your identity.
Ernest Hemingway
Read the BiographyHills Like White Elephants [1927]
The hills across the valley of the Ebro were long and white. On
this side there was no shade and no trees and the station was
between two lines of rails in the sun. Close against the side of
the station there was the warm shadow of the building and a
curtain, made of strings of bamboo beads, hung across the open
door into the bar, to keep out flies. The American and the girl
with him sat at a table in the shade, outside the building. It was
very hot and the express from Barcelona would come in forty
minutes. It stopped at this junction for two minutes and went on
to Madrid.
“What should we drink?” the girl asked. She had taken off her
hat and put it on the table.
“It’s pretty hot,” the man said.
“Let’s drink beer.”
5“Dos cervezas,” the man said into the curtain.
“Big ones?” a woman asked from the doorway.
“Yes. Two big ones.”
The woman brought two glasses of beer and two felt pads. She

put the felt pads and the beer glasses on the table and looked at
the man and the girl. The girl was looking off at the line of
hills. They were white in the sun and the country was brown and
dry.
“They look like white elephants,” she said.
10“I’ve never seen one,” the man drank his beer.
“No, you wouldn’t have.”
“I might have,” the man said. “Just because you say I wouldn’t
have doesn’t prove anything.”
The girl looked at the bead curtain. “They’ve painted something
on it,” she said. “What does it say?”
“Anis del Toro. It’s a drink.”
15“Could we try it?”
The man called “Listen” through the curtain. The woman came
out from the bar.
“Four reales.”
“We want two Anis del Toro.”
“With water?”
20“Do you want it with water?”
“I don’t know,” the girl said. “Is it good with water?”
“It’s all right.”
“You want them with water?” asked the woman.
“Yes, with water.”
25“It tastes like licorice,” the girl said and put the glass down.
“That’s the way with everything.”
“Yes,” said the girl. “Everything tastes of licorice. Especially
all the things you’ve waited so long for, like absinthe.”
“Oh, cut it out.”
“You started it,” the girl said. “I was being amused. I was
having a fine time.”
30“Well, let’s try and have a fine time.”
“All right. I was trying. I said the mountains looked like white
elephants. Wasn’t that bright?”
“That was bright.”
“I wanted to try this new drink. That’s all we do, isn’t it—look
at things and try new drinks?”

“I guess so.”
35The girl looked across at the hills.
“They’re lovely hills,” she said. “They don’t really look like
white elephants. I just meant the coloring of their skin through
the trees.”
“Should we have another drink?”
“All right.”
The warm wind blew the bead curtain against the table.
40“The beer’s nice and cool,” the man said.
“It’s lovely,” the girl said.
“It’s really an awfully simple operation, Jig,” the man said.
“It’s not really an operation at all.”
The girl looked at the ground the table legs rested on.
“I know you wouldn’t mind it, Jig. It’s really not anything. It’s
just to let the air in.”
45The girl did not say anything.
“I’ll go with you and I’ll stay with you all the time. They just
let the air in and then it’s all perfectly natural.”
“Then what will we do afterward?”
“We’ll be fine afterward. Just like we were before.”
“What makes you think so?”
50“That’s the only thing that bothers us. It’s the only thing
that’s made us unhappy.”
The girl looked at the bead curtain, put her hand out and took
hold of two of the strings of beads.
“And you think then we’ll be all right and be happy.”
“I know we will. You don’t have to be afraid. I’ve known lots
of people that have done it.”
“So have I,” said the girl. “And afterward they were all so
happy.”
55“Well,” the man said, “if you don’t want to you don’t have to.
I wouldn’t have you do it if you didn’t want to. But I know it’s
perfectly simple.”
“And you really want to?”
“I think it’s the best thing to do. But I don’t want you to do it if
you don’t really want to.”

“And if I do it you’ll be happy and things will be like they were
and you’ll love me?”
“I love you now. You know I love you.”
60“I know. But if I do it, then it will be nice again if I say
things are like white elephants, and you’ll like it?”
“I’ll love it. I love it now but I just can’t think about it. You
know how I get when I worry.”
“If I do it you won’t ever worry?”
“I won’t worry about that because it’s perfectly simple.”
“Then I’ll do it. Because I don’t care about me.”
65“What do you mean?”
“I don’t care about me.”
“Well, I care about you.”
“Oh, yes. But I don’t care about me. And I’ll do it and then
everything will be fine.”
“I don’t want you to do it if you feel that way.”
70The girl stood up and walked to the end of the station.
Across, on the other side, were fields of grain and trees along
the banks of the Ebro. Far away, beyond the river, were
mountains. The shadow of a cloud moved across the field of
grain and she saw the river through the trees.
“And we could have all this,” she said. “And we could have
everything and every day we make it more impossible.”
“What did you say?”
“I said we could have everything.”
“We can have everything.”
75“No, we can’t.”
“We can have the whole world.”
“No, we can’t.”
“We can go everywhere.”
“No, we can’t. It isn’t ours any more.”
80“It’s ours.”
“No, it isn’t. And once they take it away, you never get it
back.”
“But they haven’t taken it away.”
“We’ll wait and see.”

“Come on back in the shade,” he said. “You mustn’t feel that
way.”
85“I don’t feel any way,” the girl said. “I just know things.”
“I don’t want you to do anything that you don’t want to do—”
“Nor that isn’t good for me,” she said. “I know. Could we have
another beer?”
“All right. But you’ve got to realize—”
“I realize,” the girl said. “Can’t we maybe stop talking?”
90They sat down at the table and the girl looked across at the
hills on the dry side of the valley and the man looked at her and
at the table.
“You’ve got to realize,” he said, “that I don’t want you to do it
if you don’t want to. I’m perfectly willing to go through with it
if it means anything to you.”
“Doesn’t it mean anything to you? We could get along.”
“Of course it does. But I don’t want anybody but you. I don’t
want anyone else. And I know it’s perfectly simple.”
“Yes, you know it’s perfectly simple.”
95“It’s all right for you to say that, but I do know it.”
“Would you do something for me now?”
“I’d do anything for you.”
“Would you please please please please please please please
stop talking?”
He did not say anything but looked at the bags against the wall
of the station. There were labels on them from all the hotels
where they had spent nights.
100“But I don’t want you to,” he said. “I don’t care anything
about it.”
“I’ll scream,” the girl said.
The woman came out through the curtains with two glasses of
beer and put them down on the damp felt pads. “The train comes
in five minutes,” she said.
“What did she say?” asked the girl.
“That the train is coming in five minutes.”
105The girl smiled brightly at the woman, to thank her.
“I’d better take the bags over to the other side of the station,”

the man said. She smiled at him.
“All right. Then come back and we’ll finish the beer.”
He picked up the two heavy bags and carried them around the
station to the other tracks. He looked up the tracks but could not
see the train. Coming back, he walked through the barroom,
where people waiting for the train were drinking. He drank an
Anis at the bar and looked at the people. They were all waiting
reasonably for the train. He went out through the bead curtain.
She was sitting at the table and smiled at him.
“Do you feel better?” he asked.
110“I feel fine,” she said. “There’s nothing wrong with me. I
feel fine.”
Alice Walker
Read the Biography
Everyday Use [1973]
for your grandmama
I will wait for her in the yard that Maggie and I made so clean
and wavy yesterday afternoon. A yard like this is more
comfortable than most people know. It is not just a yard. It is
like an extended living room. When the hard clay is swept clean
as a floor and the fine sand around the edges lined with tiny,
irregular grooves, anyone can come and sit and look up into the
elm tree and wait for the breezes that never come inside the
house.
Maggie will be nervous until after her sister goes: she will stand
hopelessly in corners, homely and ashamed of the burn scars
down her arms and legs, eyeing her sister with a mixture of
envy and awe. She thinks her sister has held life always in the
palm of one hand, that “no” is a word the world never learned to
say to her.
You’ve no doubt seen those TV shows where the child who has
“made it” is confronted, as a surprise, by her own mother and
father, tottering in weakly from backstage. (A pleasant surprise,
of course: What would they do if parent and child came on the
show only to curse out and insult each other?) On TV mother
and child embrace and smile into each other’s faces. Sometimes

the mother and father weep, the child wraps them in her arms
and leans across the table to tell how she would not have made
it without their help. I have seen these programs.
Sometimes I dream a dream in which Dee and I are suddenly
brought together on a TV program of this sort. Out of a dark
and soft-seated limousine I am ushered into a bright room filled
with many people. There I meet a smiling, gray, sporty man like
Johnny Carson who shakes my hand and tells me what a fine
girl I have. Then we are on the stage and Dee is embracing me
with tears in her eyes. She pins on my dress a large orchid, even
though she has told me once that she thinks orchids are tacky
flowers.
5In real life I am a large, big-boned woman with rough, man-
working hands. In the winter I wear flannel nightgowns to bed
and overalls during the day. I can kill and clean a hog as
mercilessly as a man. My fat keeps me hot in zero weather. I
can work outside all day, breaking ice to get water for washing;
I can eat pork liver cooked over the open fire minutes after it
comes steaming from the hog. One winter I knocked a bull calf
straight in the brain between the eyes with a sledge hammer and
had the meat hung up to chill before nightfall. But of course all
this does not show on television. I am the way my daughter
would want me to be: a hundred pounds lighter, my skin like an
uncooked barley pancake. My hair glistens in the hot bright
lights. Johnny Carson has much to do to keep up with my quick
and witty tongue.
But that is a mistake. I know even before I wake up. Who ever
knew a Johnson with a quick tongue? Who can even imagine me
looking a strange white man in the eye? It seems to me I have
talked to them always with one foot raised in flight, with my
head turned in whichever way is farthest from them. Dee,
though. She would always look anyone in the eye. Hesitation
was no part of her nature.
“How do I look, Mama?” Maggie says, showing just enough of
her thin body enveloped in pink skirt and red blouse for me to
know she’s there, almost hidden by the door.

“Come out into the yard,” I say.
Have you ever seen a lame animal, perhaps a dog run over by
some careless person rich enough to own a car, sidle up to
someone who is ignorant enough to be kind to him? That is the
way my Maggie walks. She has been like this, chin on chest,
eyes on ground, feet in shuffle, ever since the fire that burned
the other house to the ground.
10Dee is lighter than Maggie, with nicer hair and a fuller figure.
She’s a woman now, though sometimes I forget. How long ago
was it that the other house burned? Ten, twelve years?
Sometimes I can still hear the flames and feel Maggie’s arms
sticking to me, her hair smoking and her dress falling off her in
little black papery flakes. Her eyes seemed stretched open,
blazed open by the flames reflected in them. And Dee. I see her
standing off under the sweet gum tree she used to dig gum out
of; a look of concentration on her face as she watched the last
dingy gray board of the house fall in toward the red-hot brick
chimney. Why don’t you do a dance around the ashes? I’d
wanted to ask her. She had hated the house that much.
I used to think she hated Maggie, too. But that was before we
raised the money, the church and me, to send her to Augusta to
school. She used to read to us without pity; forcing words, lies,
other folks’ habits, whole lives upon us two, sitting trapped and
ignorant underneath her voice. She washed us in a river of
make-believe, burned us with a lot of knowledge we didn’t
necessarily need to know. Pressed us to her with the serious
way she read, to shove us away at just the moment, like
dimwits, we seemed about to understand.
Dee wanted nice things. A yellow organdy dress to wear to her
graduation from high school; black pumps to match a green suit
she’d made from an old suit somebody gave me. She was
determined to stare down any disaster in her efforts. Her eyelids
would not flicker for minutes at a time. Often I fought off the
temptation to shake her. At sixteen she had a style of her own:
and knew what style was.
I never had an education myself. After second grade the school

was closed down. Don’t ask me why: in 1927 colored asked
fewer questions than they do now. Sometimes Maggie reads to
me. She stumbles along good-naturedly but can’t see well. She
knows she is not bright. Like good looks and money, quickness
passed her by. She will marry John Thomas (who has mossy
teeth in an earnest face) and then I’ll be free to sit here and I
guess just sing church songs to myself. Although I never was a
good singer. Never could carry a tune. I was always better at a
man’s job. I used to love to milk till I was hooked in the side in
'49. Cows are soothing and slow and don’t bother you, unless
you try to milk them the wrong way.
I have deliberately turned my back on the house. It is three
rooms, just like the one that burned, except the roof is tin; they
don’t make shingle roofs any more. There are no real windows,
just some holes cut in the sides, like the portholes in a ship, but
not round and not square, with rawhide holding the shutters up
on the outside. This house is in a pasture, too, like the other
one. No doubt when Dee sees it she will want to tear it down.
She wrote me once that no matter where we “choose” to live,
she will manage to come see us. But she will never bring her
friends. Maggie and I thought about this and Maggie asked me,
“Mama, when did Dee ever have any friends?”
15She had a few. Furtive boys in pink shirts hanging about on
washday after school. Nervous girls who never laughed.
Impressed with her they worshiped the well-turned phrase, the
cute shape, the scalding humor that erupted like bubbles in lye.
She read to them.
When she was courting Jimmy T she didn’t have much time to
pay to us, but turned all her fault finding power on him.
He flew to marry a cheap city girl from a family of ignorant
flashy people. She hardly had time to recompose herself.
When she comes I will meet—but there they are!
Maggie attempts to make a dash for the house; in her shuffling
way, but I stay her with my hand. “Come back here,” I say. And
she stops and tries to dig a well in the sand with her toe.
It is hard to see them clearly through the strong sun. But even

the first glimpse of leg out of the car tells me it is Dee. Her feet
were always neat-looking, as if God himself had shaped them
with a certain style. From the other side of the car comes a
short, stocky man. Hair is all over his head a foot long and
hanging from his chin like a kinky mule tail. I hear Maggie suck
in her breath. “Uhnnnh,” is what it sounds like. Like when you
see the wriggling end of a snake just in front of your foot on the
road. “Uhnnnh.”
20Dee next. A dress down to the ground, in this hot weather. A
dress so loud it hurts my eyes. There are yellows and oranges
enough to throw back the light of the sun. I feel my whole face
warming from the heat waves it throws out. Earrings gold, too,
and hanging down to her shoulders. Bracelets dangling and
making noises when she moves her arm up to shake the folds of
the dress out of her armpits. The dress is loose and flows, and
as she walks closer, I like it. I hear Maggie go “Uhnnnh” again.
It is her sister’s hair. It stands straight up like the wool on a
sheep. It is black as night and around the edges are two long
pigtails that rope about like small lizards disappearing behind
her ears.
“Wa-su-zo-Tean-o!” she says, coming on in that gilding way the
dress makes her move. The short stocky fellow with the hair to
his navel is all grinning and he follows up with “Asalamalakim,
my mother and sister!” He moves to hug Maggie but she falls
back, right up against the back of my chair. I feel her trembling
there and when I look up I see the perspiration falling off her
chin.
“Don’t get up,” says Dee. Since I am stout it takes something of
a push. You can see me trying to move a second or two before I
make it. She turns, showing white heels through her sandals,
and goes back to the car. Out she peeks next with a Polaroid.
She stoops down quickly and lines up picture after picture of me
sitting there in front of the house with Maggie cowering behind
me. She never takes a shot without making sure the house is
included. When a cow comes nibbling around the edge of the
yard she snaps it and me and Maggie and the house. Then she

puts the Polaroid in the back seat of the car, and comes up and
kisses me on the forehead.
Meanwhile Asalamalakim is going through motions with
Maggie’s hand. Maggie’s hand is as limp as a fish, and probably
as cold, despite the sweat, and she keeps trying to pull it back.
It looks like Asalamalakim wants to shake hands but wants to
do it fancy. Or maybe he don’t know how people shake hands.
Anyhow, he soon gives up on Maggie.
“Well,” I say. “Dee.”
25“No, Mama,” she says. “Not ‘Dee,’ Wangero Leewanika
Kemanjo!”
“What happened to ‘Dee’?” I wanted to know.
“She’s dead,” Wangero said. “I couldn’t bear it any longer,
being named after the people who oppress me.”
“You know as well as me you was named after your aunt Dicie,”
I said. Dicie is my sister. She named Dee. We called her “Big
Dee” after Dee was born.
“But who was she named after?” asked Wangero.
30“I guess after Grandma Dee,” I said.
“And who was she named after?” asked Wangero.
“Her mother,” I said, and saw Wangero was getting tired.
“That’s about as far back as I can trace it,” I said. Though, in
fact, I probably could have carried it back beyond the Civil War
through the branches.
“Well,” said Asalamalakim, “there you are.”
“Uhnnnh,” I heard Maggie say.
35“There I was not,” I said, “before ‘Dicie’ cropped up in our
family, so why should I try to trace it that far back?”
He just stood there grinning, looking down on me like
somebody inspecting a Model A car. Every once in a while he
and Wangero sent eye signals over my head.
“How do you pronounce this name?” I asked.
“You don’t have to call me by it if you don’t want to,” said
Wangero.
“Why shouldn’t I?” I asked. “If that’s what you want us to call
you, we’ll call you.”

40“I know it might sound awkward at first,” said Wangero.
“I’ll get used to it,” I said. “Ream it out again.”
Well, soon we got the name out of the way. Asalamalakim had a
name twice as long and three times as hard. After I tripped over
it two or three times he told me to just call him Hakim-a-barber.
I wanted to ask him was he a barber, but I didn’t really think he
was, so I didn’t ask.
“You must belong to those beef-cattle peoples down the road,” I
said. They said “Asalamalakim” when they met you, too, but
they didn’t shake hands. Always too busy: feeding the cattle,
fixing the fences, putting up salt-lick shelters, throwing down
hay. When the white folks poisoned some of the herd the men
stayed up all night with rifles in their hands. I walked a mile
and a half just to see the sight.
Hakim-a-barber said, “I accept some of their doctrines, but
farming and raising cattle is not my style.” (They didn’t tell me,
and I didn’t ask, whether Wangero (Dee) had really gone and
married him.)
45We sat down to eat and right away he said he didn’t eat
collards and pork was unclean. Wangero, though, went on
through the chitlins and corn bread, the greens and everything
else. She talked a blue streak over the sweet potatoes.
Everything delighted her. Even the fact that we still used the
benches her daddy made for the table when we couldn’t afford
to buy chairs.
“Oh, Mama!” she cried. Then turned to Hakim-a-barber. “I
never knew how lovely these benches are. You can feel the
rump prints,” she said, running her hands underneath her and
along the bench. Then she gave a sigh and her hand closed over
Grandma Dee’s butter dish. “That’s it!” she said. “I knew there
was something I wanted to ask you if I could have.” She jumped
up from the table and went over in the corner where the churn
stood, the milk in it clabber by now. She looked at the churn
and looked at it.
“This churn top is what I need,” she said. “Didn’t Uncle Buddy
whittle it out of a tree you all used to have?”

“Yes,” I said.
50“Uh huh,” she said happily. “And I want the dasher, too.”
“Uncle Buddy whittle that, too?” asked the barber.
Dee (Wangero) looked up at me.
“Aunt Dee’s first husband whittled the dash,” said Maggie so
low you almost couldn’t hear her. “His name was Henry, but
they called him Stash.”
“Maggie’s brain is like an elephant’s,” Wangero said, laughing.
“I can use the churn top as a centerpiece for the alcove table,”
she said, sliding a plate over the churn, “and I’ll think of
something artistic to do with the dasher.”
55When she finished wrapping the dasher the handle stuck out.
I took it for a moment in my hands. You didn’t even have to
look close to see where hands pushing the dasher up and down
to make butter had left a kind of sink in the wood. In fact, there
were a lot of small sinks; you could see where thumbs and
fingers had sunk into the wood. It was beautiful light yellow
wood, from a tree that grew in the yard where Big Dee and
Stash had lived.
After dinner Dee (Wangero) went to the trunk at the foot of my
bed and started rifling through it. Maggie hung back in the
kitchen over the dishpan. Out came Wangero with two quilts.
They had been pieced by Grandma Dee and then Big Dee and
me had hung them on the quilt frames on the front porch and
quilted them. One was in the Lone Star pattern. The other was
Walk Around the Mountain. In both of them were scraps of
dresses Grandma Dee had worn fifty and more years ago. Bits
and pieces of Grandpa Jarrell’s Paisley shirts. And one teeny
faded blue piece, about the size of a penny matchbox, that was
from Great Grandpa Ezra’s uniform that he wore in the Civil
War.
“Mama,” Wangero said sweet as a bird. “Can I have these old
quilts?”
I heard something fall in the kitchen, and a minute later the
kitchen door slammed.
“Why don’t you take one or two of the others?” I asked. “These

old things was just done by me and Big Dee from some tops
your grandma pieced before she died.”
60“No,” said Wangero. “I don’t want those. They are stitched
around the borders by machine.”
“That’ll make them last better,” I said.
“That’s not the point,” said Wangero. “These are all pieces of
dresses Grandma used to wear. She did all this stitching by
hand. Imagine!” She held the quilts securely in her arms,
stroking them.
“Some of the pieces, like those lavender ones, come from old
clothes her mother handed down to her,” I said, moving up to
touch the quilts. Dee (Wangero) moved back just enough so that
I couldn’t reach the quilts. They already belonged to her.
“Imagine!” she breathed again, clutching them closely to her
bosom.
65“The truth is,” I said, “I promised to give them quilts to
Maggie, for when she marries John Thomas.”
She gasped like a bee had stung her.
“Maggie can’t appreciate these quilts!” she said. “She’d
probably be backward enough to put them to everyday use.”
“I reckon she would,” I said. “God knows I been saving’ em for
long enough with nobody using’ em. I hope she will!” I didn’t
want to bring up how I had offered Dee (Wangero) a quilt when
she went away to college. Then she had told me they were old-
fashioned, out of style.
“But they’re priceless!” she was saying now, furiously; for she
has a temper. “Maggie would put them on the bed and in five
years they’d be in rags. Less than that!”
70“She can always make some more,” I said. “Maggie knows
how to quilt.”
Dee (Wangero) looked at me with hatred. “You just will not
understand. The point is these quilts, these quilts!”
“Well,” I said, stumped. “What would you do with them?”
“Hang them,” she said. As if that was the only thing
you could do with quilts.
Maggie by now was standing in the door. I could almost hear

the sound her feet made as they scraped over each other.
75“She can have them, Mama,” she said, like somebody used to
never winning anything, or having anything reserved for her. “I
can’ member Grandma Dee without the quilts.”
I looked at her hard. She had filled her bottom lip with
checkerberry snuff and it gave her face a kind of dopey,
hangdog look. It was Grandma Dee and Big Dee who taught her
how to quilt herself. She stood there with her scarred hands
hidden in the folds of her skirt. She looked at her sister with
something like fear but she wasn’t mad at her. This was
Maggie’s portion. This was the way she knew God to work.
When I looked at her like that something hit me in the top of my
head and ran down to the soles of my feet. Just like when I’m in
church and the spirit of God touches me and I get happy and
shout. I did something I never had done before: hugged Maggie
to me, then dragged her on into the room, snatched the quilts
out of Miss Wangero’s hands and dumped them into Maggie’s
lap. Maggie just sat there on my bed with her mouth open.
“Take one or two of the others,” I said to Dee.
But she turned without a word and went out to Hakim-a-barber.
80“You just don’t understand,” she said, as Maggie and I came
out to the car.
“What don’t I understand?” I wanted to know.
“Your heritage,” she said. And then she turned to Maggie,
kissed her, and said, “You ought to try to make something of
yourself, too, Maggie. It’s really a new day for us. But from the
way you and Mama still live you’d never know it.”
She put on some sunglasses that hid everything above the tip of
her nose and her chin.
Maggie smiled; maybe at the sunglasses. But a real smile, not
scared. After we watched the car dust settle I asked Maggie to
bring me a dip of snuff. And then the two of us sat there just
enjoying, until it was time to go in the house and go to bed.
JOURNAL: Alice Walker, “Everyday Use”
Nikki Giovanni

Read the Biography
Mothers [1968]
the last time i was home
to see my mother we kissed
exchanged pleasantries
and unpleasantries pulled a warm
5comforting silence around
us and read separate books
i remember the first time
i consciously saw her
we were living in a three room
10apartment on burns avenue
mommy always sat in the dark
i don’t know how i knew that but she did
that night i stumbled into the kitchen
maybe because i’ve always been
15a night person or perhaps because i had wet the bed
she was sitting on a chair
the room was bathed in moonlight diffused through
those thousands of panes landlords who rented
to people with children were prone to put in windows
20she may have been smoking but maybe not
her hair was three-quarters her height
which made me a strong believer in the samson myth
and very black
i’m sure i just hung there by the door
25i remember thinking: what a beautiful lady
she was very deliberately waiting
perhaps for my father to come home
from his night job or maybe for a dream
that had promised to come by
30“come here” she said “i’ll teach you
a poem:
i see the moonthe moon sees megod bless the moonand god
bless me”
i taught it to my son

who recited it for her
just to say we must learn
35to bear the pleasures
as we have borne the pains
Seamus Heaney
Read the Biography
Mid-term Break [1966]
I sat all morning in the college sick bay
Counting bells knelling classes to a close.
At two o’clock our neighbours drove me home.
In the porch I met my father crying—
5He had always taken funerals in his stride—
And Big Jim Evans saying it was a hard blow.
The baby cooed and laughed and rocked the pram
When I came in, and I was embarrassed
By old men standing up to shake my hand
10And tell me they were ‘sorry for my trouble’.
Whispers informed strangers I was the eldest,
Away at school, as my mother held my hand
In hers and coughed out angry tearless sighs.
At ten o’clock the ambulance arrived
15With the corpse, stanched and bandaged by the nurses.
Next morning I went up into the room. Snowdrops
And candles soothed the bedside; I saw him
For the first time in six weeks. Paler now,
Wearing a poppy bruise on his left temple,
20He lay in the four-foot box as in his cot.
No gaudy scars, the bumper knocked him clear.
A four-foot box, a foot for every year.
JOURNAL: Seamus Heaney, “Mid-term Break”
Peter Meinke
Read the Biography
Advice to My Son [1981]
—FOR TIM
The trick is, to live your days

as if each one may be your last
(for they go fast, and young men lose their lives
in strange and unimaginable ways)
5but at the same time, plan long range
(for they go slow: if you survive
the shattered windshield and the bursting shell
you will arrive
at our approximation here below
10of heaven or hell).
To be specific, between the peony and the rose
plant squash and spinach, turnips and tomatoes;
beauty is nectar
and nectar, in a desert, saves—
15but the stomach craves stronger sustenance
than the honied vine.
Therefore, marry a pretty girl
after seeing her mother;
speak truth to one man,
20work with another;
and always serve bread with your wine.
But, son,
always serve wine.
JOURNAL: Peter Meinke, “Advice for My Son”
Adrienne Rich
Read the Biography
Delta [1989]
If you have taken this rubble for my past
raking through it for fragments you could sell
know that I long ago moved on
deeper into the heart of the matter
5If you think you can grasp me, think again:
my story flows in more than one direction
a delta springing from the riverbed
with its five fingers spread
JOURNAL: Adrienne Rich, “Delta”

Writing Assignment
Review the Strategy Questions for Organizing Your Argument
Essay in "Creating an Informal Outline" section of Chapter 5,
and then write a 1000-word argument for a claim of value
connecting individual identity and family heritage. To help you
develop your claim of value think through questions such as
these:
· How are people's identities shaped by their surrounding
familial and cultural traditions?
· How uniform and valued/cherished is your family history?
In order to support your claim of value, you'll need to include a
variety of sources and perspectives. Incorporate the following
into your paper:
· your first-hand experiences
· evidence gathered from stories in this module
· researched scholarly insight into family and self-identity
· our Core Values of Excellence and/or Integrity
You are encouraged to complete a first draft of the assignment
then revise your work. Submit your assignment to the Tutor.com
for feedback--look in the Resources tab of this course for
access--then revise your work before turning it in. Submit the
assignment to the Assignment box no later than Sunday 11:59
PM EST/EDT. (This Assignment box basket may be linked to
Turnitin.).
Strategy Questions for Organizing Your Argument Essay
1. Do you have a lead-in to “hook” your reader? (an example,
anecdote, scenario, startling statistic, or provocative question)
2. How much background is required to properly acquaint
readers with your issue?
3. Will your claim be placed early (introduction) or delayed
(conclusion) in your paper?

4. What is your supporting evidence?
5. Have you located authoritative (expert) sources that add
credibility to your argument?
6. Have you considered addressing opposing viewpoints?
7. Are you willing to make some concessions (compromises)
toward opposing sides?
8. What type of tone (serious, comical, sarcastic, inquisitive)
best relates your message to reach your audience?
9. Once written, have you maintained a third person voice? (No
“I” or “you” statements)
10. How will you conclude in a meaningful way? (Call your
readers to take action, explain why the topic has global
importance, or offer a common ground compromise that benefits
all sides?)
Module 7 Transcript
Slide 1:
Welcome to Module 7! In this module, we look at how students
make meaning of their experiences.
Slide 2:
The Learning Objectives for this module include:
· Recognize the importance of epistemological and intellectual
development among college students.
· Assess how the teaching and learning process influences
epistemological and intellectual development.
· Illustrate how successful epistemological and intellectual
development can be assessed.
· Develop strategies to help facilitate epistemological and
intellectual development.
Slide 3:
Cognitive structural theories describe the process of
epistemological and intellectual development during the college
years. Rooted in the work of Piaget, these theories focus on how
people think, reason, and make meaning of their experiences.
We will study three cognitive structural theories: Park’s theory

of intellectual and ethical development, Belenky et al.’s
women’s ways of knowing, and King & Kitchener’s reflective
judgement model.
With cognitive structural theories, individuals go through stages
that build upon the previous stages. As individuals encounter
new information or experiences that create cognitive
dissonance, they first attempt to incorporate this new data into
their current way of thinking. If they can’t, a new, more
complex structure is formed. Neurological maturation in
cognitive development is central, but the role played by the
environment in providing experiences to which the individual
must react is also significant.
Slide 4:
Perry’s theory consists of nine positions outlined on a
continuum of development which occurs over time. In Perry’s
theory, positions are static, with development occurring not I
the positions, but during transitions between them. Though
Perry’s theory uses nine positions, the Patton text and this
lecture illustrates four of them, which is enough to put this
theory into practice.
Dualism represents a mode of meaning making in which
individuals view the world as good-bad, right-wrong, black-
white. Learning is essentially information exchange because
knowledge is seen as quantitative and authorities (including
people and books) are seen as possessing the right answers.
Dualistic meaning-makers believe that the right answers exist
for everything. The transition to multiplicity begins when
cognitive dissonance occurs, for example when experts disagree
or good teachers or authority figures do not have all of the
answers or express uncertainty.
Multiplicity can be thought of as honoring diverse views when
the right answers are not yet known. As individuals move
through multiplicity, their conception of the student role shifts
from working hard to learn what experts are teaching toward
learning to think more independently. During this progression,
peers become more legitimate sources of knowledge, ad

individuals are likely to improve their ability to think
analytically.
For multiplistic thinkers, a recognition of what is needed to
support opinions initiates the transition to relativism. With
relativism, all opinions are no longer equally valid, students
acknowledge that some opinions are of little value, but realize
that reasonable people can also legitimately disagree on some
matters. Knowledge is contextually defined, based on evidence
and supporting arguments.
The movement from relativism to the process of commitment in
relativism, which involves making choices in a contextual
world, exemplifies a shift away from cognitive development
because it does not involve changes in cognitive structure. The
commitment process involves choices, decisions, and
affirmations that are made from the vantage point of relativism.
Slide 5:
The developmental instruction model provides a model for
instructional design grounded in an analysis of Perry’s
discussion of student learner characteristics which are usable in
the classroom and other instructional settings. The four levels
of challenge and support described in the model include
structure, diversity, experiential learning, and personalism.
Structure refers to the framework and direction provided to
students. Examples include placing the course in the context of
the curriculum, giving detailed explanations of assignments, and
using specific examples that reflect students’ experience. The
Patton text notes that students in the earlier stages of Perry’s
model will value this support while students who are more
advanced may find it limiting and prefer a more open-ended
approach.
With diversity, instructors encourage students to consider
alternatives and different perspectives. This can be done
through a variety of readings, assignments, points of view, and
instructional methods.
Experiential learning relates to the concreteness, directness, and
involvement contained in learning activities. Experiential

learning helps students make connections to the subject matter
being taught in the classroom. Examples might include case
studies, role-playing, and other exercises that facilitate
reflection on and application of the material.
Lastly, personalism reflects the creation of a safe environment
in which educators encourage risk-taking. Personalism is
manifested in an interactive environment in which enthusiasm
for the material, instructor availability, and comprehensive
feedback are exhibited.
Slide 6:
Belenky and other researchers formulated our next model of
development, Women’s Ways of Knowing. This model came
about because of an observed lack of confidence in women’s
ability to think, speaking often about holes in their own
learning. This model is based off of lengthy interviews with
women who were students or recent graduates of college, as
well as some human service agency workers who provided
support to female parents.
Belenky et al. referred to the different ways of knowing as
perspectives rather than stages, and admitted these perspectives
might not be all-inclusive. The five epistemological
perspectives include silence, received knowing, subjective
knowing, procedural knowing, and constructed knowing.
With silence, the researchers came to believe it was more
appropriate to look at it as “silenced,” being characterized as
mindless, voiceless, and obedient. In this perspective, women
find themselves subject to the whims of eternal authority, and
were observed by researchers as the most socially,
economically, and educationally deprived. Though few of the
interviewed women were currently going through this
perspective, many of them saw it looking back into their past.
Listening to the voices of others is a predominant trait of
received knowing. A lack of self-confidence is evident in the
belief that one is capable of receiving and reproducing only
knowledge imparted by external authorities. This perspective

lacks a creation of knowledge independently.
Next, with subjective knowing, a transition occurs where
women now see the truth as residing in the self, frequently
being as a result of a failed male authority figure, such as a
father who committed incest or an abusive husband. Inherent in
the process of subjective knowing for women is a quest for the
self, often including the element of “walking away from the
past.”
Procedural knowing involves learning and applying objective
procedures for taking in and conveying knowledge, emerging
from the context of personal experience rather than being
derived from authorities.
Lastly, constructed knowing involves the integration of
subjective and objective knowledge, with both feeling and
through present. We can also see this perspective as “the
process of sorting out the pieces of the self and of searching for
a unique and authentic voice.” Constructivists are often able to
listen to others without losing the ability to also hear their own
voices.
Slide 7:
Though this model was geared toward women, specifically, it’s
implications can have benefits for all college students.
First, advocating connected and collaborative teaching can help
educators place emphasis on connection rather than separation,
understanding and acceptance rather than assessment, and
collaboration rather than debate. Respecting and supporting
first-hand experience as a source of knowledge can encourage
student-initiated work patterns rather than imposing arbitrary
requirements.
Second, faculty members can connect to students and help them
produce their own ideas, encouraging an expression of diverse
opinions.
Slide 8:
Last, we look at King and Kitchener’s Reflective Judgment
Model. This model describes how individuals understand the
nature of knowledge and use that understanding to guide their

thinking and behaviors. Central to this model is the observation
that people’s assumptions about what and how something can be
known provide a lens that shapes how individuals frame a
problem and how they justify their beliefs about it in the face of
uncertainty.
The reflective judgment model is comprised of seven stages,
each representing a distinct set of assumptions about knowledge
and the process of acquiring knowledge. Each set of
assumptions results in a different strategy for solving ill-
structured problems. Ill-structured problems have no certain
answers, in contrast to well-structured problems for which
single correct answers can be identified. Increasingly advanced
stages signify increasing complexity and are clustered into three
groups: pre-reflective thinking (stages 1 – 3), quasi-reflective
thinking (stages 4 – 5), and reflective thinking (stages 6 & 7).
Pre-reflective thinkers do not acknowledge and many not even
realize that knowledge is uncertain. Consequently, they do not
recognize the existence of real problems that lack an absolute,
correct answer, nor do they evidence in reasoning toward a
conclusion.
Quasi-reflective thinkers realize ill-structured problems exist
and knowledge claims about such problems include uncertainty.
Quasi-reflective thinkers can identify some issues as being
genuinely problematic, but at the same time, while they use
evidence, they have difficulty drawing reasoned conclusions and
justifying their beliefs.
Lastly, reflective thinkers maintain that knowledge is actively
constructed, and claims of knowledge must be viewed in
relation to the context in which they were generated. Relative
thinkers maintain that judgments must be based upon relevant
data, and conclusions should be open to reevaluation.
Slide 9:
When thinking about how we can apply this model to practice,
researchers provide several suggestions.
First, both faculty and student affairs practitioners can show
respect for individuals at any developmental level, recognize

multiple perspectives, and provide challenge and support to
students. Encouraging students to utilize reflective journal
writing to promote reflective thinking is one suggestion to help
facilitate this. Presenting ill-structured problems in the
classroom is another recommendation. An example might be
posing a question such as “Which student in our class would
make the most effective class leader?” Questions like this
require the ability to think across several categories of
qualifications to determine the “best” answer. In this example,
the faculty member can best help students by giving them
feedback on their responses, providing evaluation of students’
arguments, and modeling advanced reasoning about such
complex issues.
Slide 10:
To summarize this module’s main concepts:
· Cognitive social theories like the ones we examined in this
chapter focus on how people think, reason, and make meaning
of their experiences.
· Though these theories and models add a great deal of
knowledge to the topic of epistemological and intellectual
development, continuing research is important to address the
changing college student.
· As intellectual development increases, so does the ability to
have complex thoughts and solve complex problems.
Patterns and Themes
Discuss the patterns and themes you can identify in the three
theories presented in this week’s assigned reading of the Patton
text.
How might you move students in one stage or level to the next
stage or level?
· Your initial post (approximately 200-250 words) should
address each question

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