"The Diversity Of Life On Earth: From Heritage to Extinction" (260p) an e-book on sustainable development by sylvain richer de forges

The Diversity of Life on Earth
from Heritage to Extinction
e-book version
by Sylvain Richer de Forges
© Sylvain Richer de Forges
2010 © Sylvain Richer de Forges. All rights reserved. Visit the program
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The Diversity Of Life On Earth
2010 © Sylvain Richer de Forges. All rights reserved. 2
This book aims to address the
dramatic issue of extinction of
species on Earth.
In its unique format, it navigates
through key issues surrounding the
concept of biodiversity:
-What do we know
-The diversity of life forms on Earth
-Where most life forms are found
-The human impacts
-The current status of extinction
-The potential of preserving
biodiversity and its implication for
human civilizations
-What should be tried to preserve
the diversity of life on Earth
This book was written in 2010 to
celebrate the international year on
biodiversity and with a purpose of
raising awareness on the issue.
Prologue
Prologue
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This e-book is a simplified adaptation
from the book of the same name which
can be purchased through main book
sale channels ISBN 978-981-07-3457-2

Introduction
of knowledge is contained within species whether it is for
engineering applications, agriculture or to develop new
medicines.
We also know that our lives, as the human species, is highly
related to those of other species upon which we depend
should it be for maintaining the stability of Earth ecosystems,
our food supplies or our health.
Every organism has its role to play in the complex Earth
ecosystems which have reached equilibrium over millions of
years. Many of these ecosystems are on the verge of collapse
with often unknown consequences for humans.
We however now know what the pressures are and therefore
could do something to try to preserve the diversity of life on
Earth by limiting or suppressing these pressures.
This book intends to provide an overview of the diversity of
life, what is at stake, the major pressures on life forms and
what could be done to avoid what many experts predict will
be the fifth massive extinction.
We must keep in mind that : “Extinction is forever”
With 2010 being the international year of biodiversity, this
book comes at a good time to make an overview of the state
of our knowledge on biodiversity and what is at stake.
Biodiversity is still, even in the 21st century following the
legacy of the work of great scientists and breakthrough
discoveries, not well understood by the general public and
decision makers. Indeed, we still do not seem to have
understood the incredible heritage that we have as a result
of more than 3.5 billion years of natural history, neither the
very serious threats and devastating changes to biodiversity
that are occurring at present as a consequence of human
activities.
Biodiversity is the most valuable resource of our planet and
we are on the verge of losing most of it. During the 21st
century as a result of a combine impact of pressures from
pollutions, human disturbances and climate change, most
experts have warned that we could lose half of all the
species inhabiting our planet by the end of this century.
Species are disappearing at an alarming rate and much faster
than they are studied. We know that a tremendous amount
Introduction
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Table of Content (1)
Chapter II: The Diversity of Life on Earth
Introduction Chapter II ………………………………………… 34
II.1 Definition of Biodiversity ……………………………… 35
II.2 Levels of Biodiversity …………………………………… 37
II.3 Biodiversity: What Do We Know? ………………… 38
II.4 Taxonomy Vs Molecular phylogeny ……………… 42
II.5 Speciation & Adaptation ……………………………… 44
II.6 The Tree of Life …………………………………………… 47
II.7 Archea …………………………………………………………… 48
II.8 Bacteria ………………………………………………………… 49
II.9 Eucaryotes …………………………………………………… 50
II.10 Plants …………………………………………………………… 52
II.11 Fungus ………………………………………………………… 53
II.12 Animals ………………………………………………………… 55
II.13 Insects ………………………………………………………… 57
II.14 Mammals ……………………………………………………… 61
II.15 Reptiles ……………………………………………………… 63
Conclusion Chapter II ………………………………………… 65
Chapter I: A Brief History of Natural Diversity
Introduction Chapter I ………………………………………… 11
I.1 Succession of Life Forms Overtime ……………… 12
I.2 Ancient Life …………………………………………………… 13
I.3 Fossils: an Historical Record ………………………… 14
I.4 Rise of Natural history: Buffon ……………………… 16
I.5 Nomenclature System: Linneaus …………………… 17
I.6 Naming Species ……………………………………………… 18
I.7 Taxonomy Vs Phylogeny ………………………………… 19
I.8 Natural Selection: Darwin & Wallace …………… 21
I.9 The Rise of the Microscope …………………………… 23
I.10 Micro-organisms: Pasteur …………………………… 24
I.11 Commerce and Biodiversity: Spice Trade …… 25
I.12 The Era of Great Explorers ………………………… 26
I.13 Origin of Genetics: Gregor Mendel ……………… 29
I.14 The Discovery of DNA …………………………………… 30
I.15 The Modern Concept of Biodiversity …………… 31
Conclusion Chapter I …………………………………………… 32
Table of Content
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Chapter III: Main Biodiversity Rich Ecosystems
Introduction Chapter III ……………………………………… 67
III.1 Rainforests ………………………………………………… 68
III.2 Coral Reefs ………………………………………………… 69
III.3 Mangroves …………………………………………………… 71
III.4 Isolated Ecosystems …………………………………… 72
III.5 Abyssal Environments ………………………………… 74
III.6 Sea Grass Beds …………………………………………… 77
Conclusion Chapter III ………………………………………… 78
Chapter IV: Anthropic Impacts and Biodiversity
Introduction Chapter IV ……………………………………… 80
IV.1 Deforestation ……………………………………………… 81
IV.2 Mining ………………………………………………………… 84
IV.3 Over Fishing ……………………………………………… 86
IV.4 Illegal Trading of Species …………………………… 92
IV.5 Agriculture ………………………………………………… 93
IV.6 Bio-engineering ………………………………………… 96
IV.7 Industrialization & Associated Wastes ……… 97
IV.8 Pollution & Biodiversity ……………………………… 98
IV.9 Climate Change & Biodiversity ………………… 101
IV.10 Human Disturbances / Overpopulation …… 107
IV.11 Mass Tourism …………………………………………… 110
IV.12 Forest Fires ……………………………………………… 112
IV.13 Fragmentation of Habitats ……………………… 114
IV.14 Genetic Resources …………………………………… 116
IV.15 Introduction of Species …………………………… 118
Conclusion Chapter IV ……………………………………… 120
Table of Content
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Chapter V: A Few Case Studies of Biodiversity
Degradation
Introduction Chapter V ……………………………………… 122
V.1 Case Study: Oil Spills ………………………………… 123
V.2 Case Study: Mining ……………………………………… 127
V.3 Case Study: Acid Rains ……………………………… 128
V.4 Case Study: Chernobyl ……………………………… 129
V.5 Introduction of Species ……………………………… 130
V.6 Biodiversity & Climate Change …………………… 132
V.7 Global Biodiversity Loss ……………………………… 133
Conclusion Chapter V ………………………………………… 136
Chapter VI: Global State of Biodiversity
Introduction Chapter VI …………………………………… 138
VI.1 The Global Living Planet Index ………………… 139
VI.2 The Terrestrial Living Planet Index …………… 140
VI.3 The Marine Living Planet Index ………………… 141
VI.4 The Freshwater Living Planet Index ………… 142
VI.5 The World Biocapacity ……………………………… 144
VI.6 State of Biodiversity ………………………………… 145
Conclusion Chapter VI ……………………………………… 146
Table of Content
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Chapter VII: Biodiversity Hotspots and
Conservation Priorities
Introduction Chapter VII …………………………………… 148
VII.1 What is a Biodiversity Hotspot? ………………… 149
VII.2 Case Study: Madagascar …………………………… 151
VII.3 Case Study: Philippines …………………………… 152
VII.4 Case Study: Borneo ………………………………… 154
VII.5 Case Study: Barrier reefs ………………………… 155
VII.6 Case Study: The Galapagos ……………………… 157
Conclusion Chapter VII ……………………………………… 158
Chapter VIII: Singapore, an Interesting Case Study
Introduction Chapter VIII …………………………………… 160
VIII.1 The Singapore Context …………………………… 161
VIII.2 Impacts of Urban Development on
Biodiversity ……………………………………………… 163
VIII.3 Vision of a Green City ……………………………… 165
VIII.4 Preserving & Restoring Biodiversity in
Singapore ………………………………………………… 168
VIII.5 Singapore Remaining Bio-Diverse
Locations ………………………………………………… 169
VIII.6 Biodiversity in the City …………………………… 173
VIII.7 Compromises between Development &
Conservation …………………………………………… 177
Conclusion Chapter VIII ……………………………………… 178
Table of Content
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Chapter IX: The Importance of Biodiversity
Preservation for Human Beings
Introduction Chapter IX …………………………………… 180
IX.1 Biodiversity and Pharmacology ………………… 181
IX.2 Biodiversity and Agriculture ……………………… 185
IX.3 Biodiversity and the Arts …………………………… 188
IX.4 Socio Biology ……………………………………………… 190
IX.5 Biomimetics ……………………………………………… 191
IX.6 A Guide to Biomimetics …………………………… 194
IX.7 We Have A Lot to Learn by Studying
Nature ……………………………………………………… 199
Conclusion Chapter IX ……………………………………… 206
Chapter X: What Can be Done to Preserve
Biodiversity?
Introduction Chapter X …………………………………… 208
X.1 What Can Individuals Do? …………………………… 209
X.2 What Can Corporates Do? …………………………… 213
X.3 What Can Governments Do? ……………………… 216
X.4 Education and Biodiversity ………………………… 223
X.5 The Concept of Sustainable Development … 226
X.6 The Concept of Dead Zones ……………………… 227
X.7 Vertical Farms …………………………………………… 228
X.8 City Biodiversity Index ………………………………… 229
X.9 Sustainable Urban Design …………………………… 230
X.10 Greening Cities ………………………………………… 232
X.11 Eco Tourism ……………………………………………… 234
Conclusion Chapter X ………………………………………… 237
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Chapter XI: Common Misunderstandings about
Biodiversity
XI.1 Questions and Answers ……………………………… 239
XI.2 A Common Interest: Biodiversity and
Religions …………………………………………………… 246
General Conclusion ………………………………………… 248
Annex
Bibliography ……………………………………………………… 250
Acknowledgments ……………………………………………… 261
About the Author ……………………………………………… 262
Table of Content
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A living fossil: Gymnocrinus richeri
Chapter I
A Brief History of
Natural Diversity
How a few key persons and
discoveries have changed our
vision of life on Earth

Our knowledge of biology and the diversity of life on Earth
has significantly improved over the past century.
This chapter intends to highlight the key elements in the
discovery of species and our understanding of the living
world.
Some key findings such as the process of natural selection;
the discovery of DNA or the Linnaeous nomenclature
system have permitted remarkable breakthrough in our
understanding of the living world.
Today, many key findings have led to entire new disciplines
of biology such as evolutionary biology, molecular biology,
behavioral biology, ecology or zoology.
Introduction Chapter I:
A Brief History of Natural Diversity
In this chapter you will learn about key historical dates and
discoveries which have led to the current understanding of
life forms on Earth.
Biology in general is a complex field. Many breakthrough
discoveries that have occurred in the past where made by
accident while investigating other aspects. It is likely that
further breakthrough will be made in a similar way.
Therefore the importance of persevering in scientific
research efforts.
The problem with scientific research is that it works on
funding basis. However, in any real fundamental research we
do not really know what it is that we are searching for,
despite that there is certainly something to be found.
Because funds are allocated on specific targets basis,
fundamental research is disappearing and at the same time
the chances of making real breakthrough discoveries.
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I.1 Succession of Life Forms
Over Time
Life forms have evolved over time.
Numerous factors have played a role in the history of
the successions of life forms on Earth.
Major geological eras have been identified.
Many of them mark a mass species extinction event or
the apparition of new life forms.
The succession of life forms in the fossil record have in
fact served to define geological eras (“zoic”).
From fossil observations made in the geological record
we know that life on Earth has existed for at least 3.5
billion years and that many successions of life forms
have occurred throughout time.
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Life originated on Earth between 3.5 and 4 billion
years ago.
4 billion years ago the Earth was very different than it
is today. The atmosphere contained no oxygen. It was a
mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide with traces of
other gases such as methane and ammonia. Under such
conditions, there were probably no life.
The earliest fossils of living organisms are dated (using
carbon isotopes) at 3.5 billion years old from Western
Australia. They resemble present day cyanobacteria
and were probably photosynthetic.
Very early on (about 3 billion years ago), life
diversified into two major domains, Bacteria and
Archea. A third domain, the Eukarya originated 1.3
billion years later.
Life has evolved overtime through a series of steps.
The steps can be very briefly summarized as follows:
- The apparition of simple cells
- Cells became more complex
- RNA then DNA developed as the support of the
genome
- Complication and differentiation of species
overtime through natural selection
This long natural history which started about 3.5
billion years ago has resulted in the incredible
diversity of life that we observe today.
However, we are only observing today a small
fraction of all the life forms that have existed on
Earth as most species have become extinct over
time through natural events and during critical
periods which have led to mass extinctions.
Many scientists agree that we are now experiencing
a new era of mass species extinction which is for
the first time in history almost entirely the result
of one single species (humans).
I.2 Ancient Life
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Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of
animals, plants, and other organisms from the
remote past.
Fossils are formed when animal remains are
deposited on sedimentary substrates (e.g. mud).
Fossils range in age from the youngest at the start
of the Holocene Epoch to the oldest from
the Archaean Eon several billion years old.
Fossils vary in size from microscopic, such as single
bacterial cells only one micrometer in diameter, to
gigantic, such as dinosaurs and trees.
Most of the knowledge that we have of ancient life
that has inhabited the planet results from the
study of fossils.
I.3 (a) Fossils: an
Historical Record of
Succession of Life Forms
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I.3 (b)
The fossil record provides a snapshot of the types
and successions of life forms that inhabited the
planet millions of years ago throughout the
geological eras. The oldest fossils found can be
dated at 3.5 billion years old.
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Buffon is considered to be one of the main precursors in
the field of natural history.
Georges- Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (7 September
1707-16 April 1788) was a French naturalist,
mathematician, biologist, cosmologist and a writer. His
theories have influenced two generations of naturalists
among whom Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck and Charles
Darwin.
Buffon is mostly known for his major work which was
published in 36 volumes from 1749 to 1789. He included
all the knowledge of the time in the field of natural
sciences. In this publication, he revealed a resemblance
between man and apes and the possibility of a common
genealogy.
Buffon is also considered to be one of the precursors of
comparative anatomy.
I.4 The Field of Natural
History: George Louis
Leclerc, comte de Buffon
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Carl Linnaeus (23rd May 1707- 10 Jan 1778) was a
Swedish naturalist who has set the basis for the modern
system of binomial nomenclature. He his referred to as
the father of modern Taxonomy
Linnaeus has put into place his system of binomial
nomenclature which allows referring with precision to
all species of animal and vegetal
The system is based on a combination of 2 Latin names
which comprises of:
A name for the Genus
A specific character which often relates to a
characteristic of the species.
This nomenclature system is still widely used and
accepted today by Taxonomists.
I.5 Linnaeus & the Origin
of Species Nomenclature
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I.6 Naming Species
Nomenclature is very important. All species
need to have a name in order to be referred to.
The naming of species has become a very useful
and reliable process with the implementation of
the Linnaeous nomenclature.
Each species name is formed out of Latin and
has two parts: the genus name and
the species name.
For example, Homo sapiens is the name of the
human species.
Names are often derived from ancient
Greek word roots, or words from numerous
other languages. Frequently species names are
based on the surname of a person, such as a
well-regarded scientist, or are a Latinized
version of a relevant place name.
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Taxonomy: Taxonomy is the science of species
classification within their evolutionary history.
Phylogenetics: Today, the alternative to the
traditional rank-based biological classification
is phylogenetic systematics, which is
postulating phylogenetic trees, rather than
focusing on taxa to delimit.
Taxonomy is based on the principle that we
need to study species in order to understand
how they have evolved overtime and how all
species are connected to one another.
I.7 (a) Taxonomy and
Phylogeny
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I.7 (b)
Studying species requires to keep specimens in alcohol
so that their anatomy and key features can be
preserved, looked into and serve as reference over time
for comparison purposes.
Collections of the British Museum preserved rare specimens, some
of them from the private Charles Darwin’s collections. © Sylvain Richer de Forges
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Charles Darwin (12 feb 1809-19 april 1882) was an
English naturalist who’s work on the evolution of
living species. He has revolutionized the field of
biology.
Darwin was famous by the scientific community of
his time for his field work and his researches. He
has formulated the hypothesis that all living
species have evolved over time from common
ancestors through a process referred to as natural
selection.
His theory on natural selection had to wait until
the 1930’s for it to become generally accepted as
the driving mechanisms of the evolution process.
Darwin’s scientific discovery remains the
foundation of modern biology as it explains in a
logical and unified way the diversity of life on
Earth.
I.8 (a) Natural Selection:
Charles Darwin
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Alfred Russel Wallace (8 Jan 1823-7 Nov 1913) was a
naturalist, geographer, explorer, anthropologist and
a British biologist. He is the co-discoverer of the
evolution theory by natural selection along with
Charles Darwin.
Wallace is mostly known to have proposed a theory
on natural selection which has pushed Darwin to
publish his own theory. Wallace was also one of the
main evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century which
has contributed to the evolution theory mostly on
the basis of colour displays in animals.
Wallace was also considered as an expert in the field
of geographic repartition of animal species and is
referred to as the father of biogeography.
I.8 (b) Natural Selection:
Alfred Russel Wallace
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The first microscope to be developed was the optical microscope,
although the original inventor is not easy to identify. An early
microscope was made in 1590 in Middelburg, Netherlands.
The greatest contribution which has led to modern day microscopes
came from Antoine van Leeuwenhoek.
Van Leeuwenhoek is mostly known for the ameliorations he made to
the microscope and is one of the precursors of modern cell biology and
microbiology. Throughout his life, he made a number of significant
observations with his home-made microscopes which he reported to the
London Royal Society.
One of his earlier observations was on moulds and bee darts. Among
others he first observed and discovered Bacteria, Spermatozoids, flow
of blood in capillaries and muscle fibres.
Many of his observations and deductions at the time where
controversial as they went against the general belief of “Spontaneous
Generation”.
=> The use of the microscope has been a revolution in significantly
broadening our vision of the natural world and our understanding of
the biodiversity of life on Earth. Species of the macro level could
now be observed.
I.9 The Rise of the Microscope
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I.10 Pasteur and
Micro-Organisms
Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822-28 September 1895)
was a French scientist, chemist and physicist by
formation who then became a pioneer of microbiology.
He has achieved remarkable breakthroughs in the causes
and preventions of diseases such as puerperal fever, and
he created the first vaccine for rabies and anthrax. His
experiments supported the germ theory of disease.
He has investigated a method to stop milk and wine from
causing sickness, a process that came to be
called pasteurization. Pasteur also made many
discoveries in the field of chemistry, most notably the
molecular basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals.
=>The discoveries of Pasteur further enhanced our
understanding and discovery of how bio-diverse the micro
world is but also how the observation of nature can lead
to remarkable breakthroughs and applications that can
benefit humans, a field now referred to as biomimetics.
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The commercial value of biodiversity came apparent
during the period of great explorations.
The commerce of exotic spices as well as the trade of
exotic animals where major commerce trades at the time
(and still remain).
During that time it became rapidly apparent that trading
species would play a major part of the world economy.
This is still valid today, the trade of species account for
one of the largest economical trades worldwide.
=> At the time, the amount of trade was manageable.
However, as the trade expended (beyond spices) and the
world population grew, the trade of species is today a
major drive of species extinction as these exploitations
go much beyond the populations regeneration rates.
I.11 Spice Trade and the
Commercial Value of
Biodiversity
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During the 19th century, the quest for
exploration and knowledge of the
natural world through observations
and field studies has led to numerous
breakthroughs in our understanding
of nature.
Field studies remain of crucial
importance and should not be
replaced by other disciplines.
I.12 (a) The Era of
Great Explorers
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The expedition of the Challenger was the first great
oceanographic worldwide mission. It was realized
aboard the HMS Challenger between December 1872
and May 1876.
The ship travelled more than 120 000 km around
the world. The main goal of the mission was to
study marine animals and to understand the
circulation of currents.
The mission resulted in a major report. One of the
outcomes was the discovery of 4000 unknown
species of animals. The challenger expedition was a
remarkable breakthrough in the discovery of
species.
=> Such expedition model demonstrated that a lot
of knowledge can be gained at once if the resources
and efforts are allocated for this purpose.
I.12 (b) The Expedition
of the Challenger
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I.12 (c)
The great explorations of
the 17th and 18th century
have brought an incredible
amount of knowledge. As a
result of these explorations
we came to realize how
bio-diverse the world is.
As a consequence the world
also came to realize the
commercial benefits of
exploiting biodiversity.
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Johann Gregor Mendel (22 July 1822-6 January
1884) was a monk and a Tchek Botanist. He his
renown as the father of modern genetics. Today a
law has been named after him “the Mendel Law’
that defines the way genes are being transmitted
from generation to generation.
Most of the discoveries of Mendel where made on
observations and logical deductions by studying
reproduction patterns in peas.
=> The discovery of genetic principles have led
the path to a greater understanding of evolution
and a mechanism conducting to the diversity of
life on Earth.
However a clearer understanding of genetic
principles really came with the discovery of DNA in
the 20th century.
I.13 Origins of Genetics:
Gregor Mendel
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Desoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA) is a molecule present
in all living cells that contains all information
necessary for the development and function of a
given organism.
It is also the support for heredity as it is transmitted
during reproduction. DNA holds the genetic code and
constitute the genome of living organisms.
DNA was discovered by James D. Watson and Francis
Crick in 1953. By using x-ray diffraction data they
were able to propose the double helix or spiral
staircase structure of the DNA molecule.
=> The discovery of DNA led to remarkable
breakthrough in our understanding of genetics
which also provides a mechanism for the
transmission of genes and therefore the diversity of
life.
I.14 The Discovery of DNA
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The expression “biological diversity” was first
introduced by Thomas Lovejoy in 1980 while the
word “biodiversity” itself was invented by
Walter G.Rosen in 1985 while preparing the
National Forum on Biological Diversity organized
by the National Research Council in 1986; the
word “biodiversity” first appeared in a
publication in 1988 when American Entomologist
E.O Wilson accounted for this forum.
Edward Osborne Wilson is a current entomologist
and biologist renown for his work on evolution
and socio-biology.
Wilson is the world expert on ants and in
particular their utilisation of pheromones as a
mean for communication. He has also studied
the massive extinctions of the 20th century and
their relations with modern society.
Edward.O.Wilson. Photo from Jim Harrison 2003
I.15 The Modern
Concept of Biodiversity
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As highlighted in this first chapter, a few key
persons and great explorations have led the
way to the modern knowledge and on-going
researches to gain a better understanding of
the natural world that surrounds us.
We have come a long way since these early
days key discoveries. Despite that great
achievements have been realized, the more
we study nature, the more we come to
understand that we have only just started to
learn and exploit the potential that is within
the living environment.
Despite that many have the misconception
that we have already discovered all there is to
know, the amount of useful information still
remaining to be explored is unmatched and
virtually infinite.
Overall, it is very apparent that we still know
very little about the living environment…
Conclusion Chapter I
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Chapter II
The Diversity of Life
on Earth
How incredibly diverse are life
forms on Earth

Introduction Chapter II:
The Diversity of Life on Earth
This chapter aims to expose how bio-diverse is the world
we live in.
We, human beings, have inherited a planet which is
currently inhabited by an incredible array of life forms
resulting from 3.5 billion years of natural history and
adaptations. Life forms inhabiting the planet range from
large species such as mammals to microscopic organisms
such as bacteria.
The more we study species the more we discover that we
have so far only touched the tip of the iceberg in terms
of how complex and bio-diverse is our planet.
We are still making remarkable discoveries, for instance
finding species in places that we never thought species
could survive or discovering links between species which
have led to new paths of understanding of the history of
life on Earth.
The reality is that there is still a lot to be discovered in
biology. However, fields of biology such as taxonomy, the
science of classifying species within their evolutionary
history are disappearing. As species are disappearing at a
much greater rate then they are studied, funding for
research is now prioritized in conservation.
The fact that current species are no longer studied also
means that we are losing a tremendous amount of
knowledge and potential new ground breaking discoveries,
some of which could have direct benefits to humans.
An important fact that we have discovered by studying life
on Earth is that species are remarkably linked to one
another in a complex interaction of food networks and
ecosystems. All species play an important role in making the
stable yet fragile ecosystems that we observe today.
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Biodiversity is the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or for the
entire Earth. Biodiversity is often used as a measure of the health of biological systems.
The biodiversity found on Earth today consist of many millions of distinct biological
species, which are the product of nearly 3.5 billion years of evolution.
II.1(a): Definition of Biodiversity
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II.1 (b)
Biodiversity is like a web. Living organisms on the planet are connected and interrelated.
Every organism has a role to play in a complex network of ecosystems.
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II.2 Levels of
Biodiversity
There are different levels at
which biodiversity can be found:
-At the ecosystem level
-At the species level
-At the genes level
=> Species are interconnected in
space and time
=> The vast majority of all
species that have inhabited our
planet have become extinct
overtime
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II.3 (a) Biodiversity:
what do we know?
There are relatively only very few people worldwide who are
doing scientific studies on species.
Taxonomy: The science of species classification requires a high
level of expertise which is in decline worldwide (Each group of
species requires experts to study and understand them).
Species are in fact disappearing at a much faster rate then they
are studied.
We are losing hundreds if not hundreds of thousands of species
each year. Species that we never had the chance to study and
understand. Most of these are small or micro organisms.
=>The public knowledge of biodiversity loss is not understood as
most institutions which classify biodiversity loss tend to focus on
the well known mega fauna (tigers, elephants, rhinos…) but
barely mention the much smaller organisms which often have a
much greater role to play in ecosystems equilibrium.
Well known mega fauna
Poorly known or unknown small and
micro fauna
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II.3 (b)
Most species on Earth are very small in
size for us humans. One has to look and
search closely to find them.
When comparing ourselves to all living
species on Earth, humans are truly
“giants”.
Despite that most attention is on
emblematic species (tigers,
elephants…) the hidden macro world of
biodiversity has a very important role
to play and remains largely unknown.
=> Biodiversity mostly concerns the
macro level in terms of species
number.
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II.3 (c) Biodiversity: what
do we know?
Another trend in the study of nature is that there is an
apparent disequilibrium between the knowledge that
we have on different groups of species.
Some species with a broader interest from the general
public have been well studied such as butterflies,
shells, fish, birds, large mammals…
While others, usually smaller species, such as bacteria
remain largely unknown.
Some groups such as insects, fungus or bacteria are also
much broader than other groups.
The more we study species and try to get a broader
view of the diversity of life on Earth, the more we
realize that we know in fact very little about the
variation of life forms on our planet.
Some groups are well studied
Others are not…
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II.3 (d)
While most conservationists focus on the preservation of
emblematic species, thousands of unknown species are
disappearing every year without being noticed.
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The discovery of DNA and the genetic revolution of the 20th century
has driven a drastic change in how species are studied.
Taxonomy tends to be replaced by so called “bar coding” of particular
genes within species. Each species having its own “Bar code” allows
the buildup of a global database of species on Earth based on their
genetic code.
However, there is a downturn to this process. The “species bar code”
would work well if species were studied and identified at the same
rhythm as they are scanned. However, this is not the case and we are
now building-up large databases of species which we do not know
about for the simple reason that they have not been scientifically
studied to date (the possession of part of a species genome does
not replace studying them).
Even more of concern, species are becoming extinct at a much
greater rate then they are actually studied, which implies that many
of the coded species are likely to be extinct before they have been
studied.
Studying species implies looking into their anatomy, classifying them
within their evolutionary history, studying how they interact with the
environment…there is a lot to learn in doing such studies and
potential applications which could benefit human beings.
II.4 (a) Taxonomy Vs
Molecular Phylogeny
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II.4 (b)
In fact, one of the few things that we do
know about biodiversity on Earth is that we
still know very little…
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II.5 (a) Speciation and
Adaptation
Species on the planet have evolved over hundreds of
millions of years in response to environmental pressures
through the process of evolution by natural selection
As such, every species on the planet are marvels of
adaptation to given conditions and surrounding
environments (they have managed to survive over a very
long time due to the fact that adaptations that they
have developed has giving them survival advantages)
Each species is unique with specific adaptation
attributes from which a lot of knowledge and
applications for human civilizations could be gained
As such, any species becoming extinct results in
irreplaceable loss in potential solutions/remedies
Furthermore, biodiversity is an important aspect of the
beauty of this planet. Lets imagine a world with only a
few species left including our own. Such scenario would
be devastating for future generations
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II.5 (b)
Due to natural pressures species have evolved to be
adapted to their surrounding environment.
In this picture a small species of
crab from Loyalty Islands (New
Caledonia) has camouflaged itself
to match the species of algae on
which it lives on. This common
adaptation gives species the
advantage of not being easily
noticed by predators.
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Sylvain Richer de Forges
II.5 (c)
Pressures for survival drives long term adaptation in species.
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II.6
The tree of life. All species on Earth are interrelated.
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II.7 Archaea
The Archaea: are a group of single-celled
micro-organisms. They have no cell nucleus
or any other organelles within their cells.
Three main branches of evolutionary descent
are the Archaea, Eukarya and Bacteria.
Archaea are further divided into four
recognized phyla, but many more phyla may
exist.
Classifying the Archaea is still difficult, since
the vast majority have never been studied in
the laboratory and have only been detected
by analysis of their nucleic acids in samples
from the environment.
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The bacteria are a large group of unicellular
microorganisms.
Bacteria are found in every habitat on Earth, growing in
soil, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, water, and
deep in the Earth's crust, as well as in organic matter
and the live bodies of plants and animals.
There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of
soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh
water; in all, there are approximately five nonillion
bacteria on Earth, forming much of the world's biomass.
Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients, with many steps
in nutrient cycles depending on these organisms, such as
the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere and
putrefaction. However, most bacteria have not been
characterized, and only about half of the phyla of
bacteria have species that can be grown in the
laboratory.
=> We still know very little about bacteria.
II.8 Bacteria
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II.9 (a) Eukaryotes
(Plants, Fungi, Animals)
A eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain
complex structures protected by membranes. The
defining membrane-bound structure that sets
eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the
nucleus, or nuclear envelope, within which the
genetic material is carried. Most eukaryotic cells also
contain other membrane-bound organelles such as
mitochondria, chloroplasts and the Golgi apparatus.
Almost all species of large organisms are eukaryotes,
including animals, plants and fungi, although most
species of eukaryotic protists are micro-organisms.
Cell division in eukaryotes is different from that in
organisms without a nucleus (prokaryotes). It
involves separating the duplicated chromosomes.
There are two types of division processes. Mitosis,
one cell divides to produce two genetically identical
cells. And Meiosis, which is required in sexual
reproduction.
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II.9 (b)
Biodiversity is the most valuable
resource on the planet and yet the
least understood…
As species are highly adapted to their
surrounding environments, each
species would require an in depth
study to understand the processes
involved. Even if every person on the
planet was to study one species, we
would still have far from a complete
understanding of how diverse and
complex the living world is. Yet, only a
handful of people are making such
studies
=> There is so much more to discover
and yet so little allocated resources
to do so…
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II.10 Plants
Belonging to the kingdom Plantae, they include familiar
organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns,
mosses. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has
identified about 350,000 extant species of plants, defined as
seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies. As of 2004,
some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650
are flowering and 18,000 bryophytes.
“Green plants” obtain most of their energy from sunlight
via a process called photosynthesis
Aristotle divided all living things between plants (which
generally do not move), and animals (which often are mobile
to catch their food). In Linnaeus' system, these became the
Kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Metaphyta or Plantae) and
Animalia (also called Metazoa).
Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally
defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and
several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms
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II.11 (a) Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of
eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms
such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more
familiar mushrooms. The Fungi are classified as a
kingdom that is separate from plants, animals and
bacteria.
One major difference is that fungal cells have cell
walls that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of
plants, which contain cellulose.
Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous
because of the small size of their structures, and
their cryptic lifestyles in soil, on dead matter, and
as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi.
They may become noticeable when fruiting, either
as mushrooms or molds.
Fungi perform an essential role in the
decomposition of organic matter and have
fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and
exchange.
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Species are closely interrelated.
For instance certain species of
insects are only found on one
species of plant. If this plant
disappears, so will the insect
species. Such principle applies to
all living organism, the more we
study species the more we learn
that numerous other species live
on or in dependence to one single
species.
=> parasitology is a particular
case of these interactions.
II.11 (b)
The disappearance of only one
species can result in the
disappearance of many others
which depend on it to survive…
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II.12 (a) Animals
Animals are a major group of mostly multicellular,
eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa.
Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop,
although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in
their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move
spontaneously and independently. All animals are also
heterotrophs, meaning they must ingest other organisms
for sustenance.
Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as
marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542
million years ago.
Animals have several characteristics that set them apart
from other living things. Most animals are eukaryotic and
are multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and
most protists. They are heterotrophic. Generally digesting
food in an internal chamber, which separates them from
plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants,
algae, and fungi by lacking rigid cell walls. All animals are
motile. In most animals, embryos pass through a blastula
stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals.
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II.12 (b)
Isolated ecosystems such as caves hold some of the most
remarkably adapted species. There is still a lot to be
discovered in remote ecosystems…
Remote ecosystems can be defined as places which have
become isolated from their surrounding environments and
which possesses unique environments. Even in the 21st
century, many of such ecosystems on Earth, remain
virtually unexplored for their inhabiting biodiversity.
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II.13 (a) Insects
Insects are a class within the arthropods that
have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body
(head, thorax, and abdomen), three pairs of
jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae.
They are among the most diverse group of
animals on the planet, include more than a
million described species and represent more
than half of all known living organisms.
The number of extant species is estimated at
between six and ten million and potentially
represent over 90% of the differing life forms on
Earth. Insects may be found in nearly all
environments, although only a small number of
species occur in the oceans, a habitat dominated
by another arthropod group, the crustaceans.
The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch
from eggs. Insect growth is constrained by the
inelastic exoskeleton and development involves
a series of molts.
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II.13 (b)
Many insects are considered pests by humans. However, we must keep in mind that insects are vital to
maintaining healthy ecosystems necessary for humans well being.
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II. 13 (c) Insects
Insects that undergo incomplete
metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and
adults develop through a series of
nymphal stages.
The higher level relationship of the
hexapoda is unclear. Fossilized insects of
enormous size have been found from the
Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies
with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm.
The most diverse insect groups have
coevolved with flowering plants.
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I.13 (d)
Insects represent the largest and most diverse animal group on the planet.
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Mammals (formally Mammalia) are a class of vertebrate, air-
breathing animals whose females are characterized by the
possession of mammary glands while both males and females
are characterized by sweat glands, hair and/or fur, three
middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex region in
the brain.
Mammals are divided into three main infraclass taxa depending
how they are born. These taxa are: monotremes, marsupials
and placentals. Except for the five species of monotremes
(which lay eggs), all mammal species give birth to live young.
Most mammals also possess specialized teeth, and the largest
group of mammals, the placentals, use a placenta during
gestation.
There are approximately 5,400 species of mammals,
distributed in about 1,200 genera, 153 families, and 29 orders.
Mammals range in size from the 30–40 millimeter (1- to 1.5-
inch) Bumblebee Bat to the 33-meter (108-foot) Blue Whale.
II.14 (a) Mammals
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II.14 (b)
Mammals have developed
some of the most complex
behaviors in the animal
kingdom.
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II.15 (a) Reptiles
Reptiles, or members of the (Linnaean) class Reptilia,
are air-breathing, generally "cold-blooded".
Their skin is usually covered in scales or scutes. They are
tetrapods (either having four limbs or being descended
from four-limbed ancestors) and lay amniotic eggs, in
which the embryo is surrounded by a membrane called
the amnion. Modern reptiles inhabit every continent
with the exception of Antarctica.
Four living orders are currently recognized: Crocodilia,
Sphenodontia, Squamata and Chelonia.
The majority of reptile species are oviparous (egg-
laying), although certain species of squamates are
capable of giving live birth. This is achieved by either
ovoviviparity (egg retention) or viviparity (birth of
offspring without the development of calcified eggs).
Many of the viviparous species feed their fetuses through
various forms of placenta analogous to those of
mammals, with some providing initial care for their
hatchlings.
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II.15 (b)
Reptiles have adapted remarkably to the
most hostile environments.
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As presented in this chapter, species on Earth are
incredibly diverse.
However, despite that main types of life forms
have been identified and can be recognized,
most of the diversity occurs between species.
Despite that individual species within a group
have common features, they also possess very
different traits and adaptations which accounts
for the diversity.
While we are now starting to get a good
understanding of the common traits in groups of
species, adaptations at the species level
remains virtually unknown.
=> Every species is unique.
Conclusion Chapter II
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Chapter III
Main Biodiversity
Rich Ecosystems
How the vast majority of the
diversity of life on Earth is found
in only a few ecosystems

Introduction Chapter III:
Main Biodiversity Rich Ecosystems
This chapter aims to highlight the fact that most
biodiversity on the planet is present within a few
ecosystems.
Despite that diverse forms of life can be found in
almost any environment on the planet, the vast
majority of the species are concentrated within specific
ecosystems and also in specific locations of the planet
which are known to inhabit more species.
Oceans where life originated in the first place remain
one of the most bio-diverse environments on the
planet. However, surprisingly we still know relatively
very little about the life in our oceans, especially at
greater depths as these environments remain almost
unexplored to date.
The second mega bio-diverse environment are tropical
rainforests which inhabit a remarkable diversity of
species, much of which remains totally un-accounted
for.
There is however a concerning aspect relative to the
fact that most of biodiversity on Earth is concentrated
within these two ecosystems: both are in critical state as
a result of anthropic pressures from aspects such as
deforestation, over-exploitation and climate change.
The important point here is that we need to preserve
ecosystems in order to preserve species. If forests and
marine ecosystems collapse, this will result in enormous
losses of biodiversity. At the current rate of
deforestation, there will be little left of natural forests
by as soon as 2030.
We also know that most biodiversity in the oceans is
concentrated within shallow waters. However, as global
warming is taking its toll, we also know that it is likely
that surface temperatures will increase by at least 2
degrees by the end of the century. Under such scenario,
most coral reefs will not survive.
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III.1 Rainforests
Rainforests are one of the main
biodiversity rich ecosystems of the planet.
Rainforests are mostly found in tropical
and subtropical regions.
The largest rainforests include the Amazon
in South America as well as in the island of
Borneo in South East Asia. Both of these
examples are critically threatened from
massive deforestation which has reached
alarming rates.
At the current rate of deforestation, these
rainforests which hold most of the worlds
biodiversity could be gone as soon as 2030.
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III.2 (a) Coral Reefs
Reefs are one of the most bio-diverse ecosystems on the
planet.
They are mostly found in tropical and subtropical regions.
Reefs are critical to the equilibrium of oceanic life as they
hold many of the food supplies for other marine life.
Reefs are facing a rising amount of pressures mostly from
anthropic origins as a result of overfishing, global
warming, sea and land based pollution as well as
development.
A collapse of reef ecosystems would have dramatic
consequences on the rest of marine ecosystems which rely
on coral reefs to survive.
Reef remain a primary source of food and an ecosystem
upon many human civilizations rely on for their survival.
The loss of coral reefs will also result in major social
issues.
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III.2 (b)
Under current climate change negotiations, it is very likely that average global temperatures will exceed
2 degrees Celcius by 2100.
Accepting a 2 degree warmer world is accepting that we have already scarified most coral reefs around
the world which will not be able to cope with such a rapid change
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III.3 Mangroves
Mangroves are another bio-diverse ecosystem mostly
found in tropical and subtropical regions.
Mangroves play an important role as a feeding ground
for migratory birds.
Due to the salty or semi-salty conditions found in
mangroves, a very specific flora has adapted to such
conditions. To this particular flora and environment,
very specific and diverse life forms have also adapted
making mangroves an important feeding ground for
many species.
In addition, mangroves play a critical role in coastal
health by providing a filtering and physical barrier to
coastal erosion.
Mangroves are disappearing around the world as a
combination of deforestation, coastal development
and global warming. They are also under threat from
overfishing.
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Because they have become isolated at some point in time
over the last few million years, many ecosystems on the
planet have developed a biodiversity which is unique from
its surounding environment.
Such examples of biodiverse isolated ecosystems include
small island states like the Galapagos or New Caledonia as
well as isolated areas within continents such as an isolated
mountain top, a lake or any other area which for some
reason has become isolated from its surrounding.
Such ecosystems can be different from their surrounding
for reasons such as a micro-climate, a particular soil/flora
or a unique feature.
=>The surrounding environment often shapes the diversity
of the species inhabiting within.
III.4 (a) Isolated Ecosystems
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Isolated ecosystems, case study: seamounts
Seamounts are mountains found under the sea. The study of these mounts shows that they are very rich in biodiversity
especially in tropical and sub-tropical areas. Studies also show that these mounts are often isolated ecosystems as the
fauna found on one seamount can be very different than another seamount even when located nearby one another.
III.4 (b)
Seamounts are isolated ecosystems
rich in biodiversity.
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III.5 (a) The Abyss
The abyss refers to the deep sea at depth
below 2000 m.
We know very little about the abyss for the
reason that it is very difficult to reach due to
physical constraints.
However, some remarkable isolated
ecosystems have been found at great dephts
such as hydrothermal vents around which very
biodiverse and unique life forms have adapted.
The difficullty to reach these depths is an
obstacle to our exploration. The more we will
have access to the abyss, the more we will
discover.
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III.5 (b)
We know more about our solar system then we do about life in
the deep oceans of our own planet!
Our knowledge of life in the deeper
parts of the oceans remains largely
unknown to date. The main reason is the
extreme technological difficulties of
reaching these depths which is
comparable to going into outer space.
The other reason is that many deep sea
species are likely to be very “shy” and
sensitive to light sources. Therefore,
most of the life is likely to be scared
away by the powerful lights of
submersibles. It is likely that we have
yet not seen even the tip of the iceberg
of the diversity of deep sea life.
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III.5 (c) Deep Water
Thermal Vents
For long it was believed that all life forms on Earth
derived their energy from photosynthesis by utilizing
energy from the Sun.
However, the discovery of deep sea vents and the
understanding of the life forms living around them
shows that organisms in these ecosystems are relying
on Sulphur chemistry and thermal energy from the
core of the earth rather than direct sun energy.
Such discovery also gives hope that life forms on other
planets may exist.
Such life forms are another example of how life can
evolve and adapt to very hostile and particular
conditions.
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III.6 Seagrass Beds
Seagrasses form extensive beds or meadows
and can be either made up of one species or
be multispecific.
In temperate areas, usually one or a few
species dominate, whereas tropical beds
usually are more diverse, with up to thirtheen
species recorded in the Philippines.
Seagrass beds are highly diverse and
productive ecosystems, and can harbor
hundreds of associated species from all phyla.
Seagrass herbivory is a highly important link in
the food chain, with hundreds of species
feeding on seagrasses worldwide, including
green turtles, dugongs, manatees, fish, geese,
swans, sea urchins and crabs.
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Conclusion Chapter III
As presented in this chapter, most of the
diversity of life forms on Earth can be found in
only a few mega diverse locations.
Most of these locations are located in the
tropic and sub-tropic regions. Furthermore,
among all ecosystems on Earth, rainforests and
barrier reefs are by far the most diverse
environments in terms of biodiversity.
Sadly, both of the latest ecosystems are
amongst the most threatened from human
activities. While rainforest are disappearing at
alarming rates through deforestation and
reconversion of lands, climate change is
expected to take an heavy toll on reefs around
the world throughout the century.
However, despite that the vast majority of life
on Earth can be found in these few
ecosystems, species can surprisingly be found
in almost any environments on the planet
ranging from hot springs to the coldest places.
Micro-organisms are especially incredibly
diverse in almost any given environments.
Often species which are found in isolated and
poor ecosystems in terms of biodiversity have
been able to survive through unique
adaptations which have provided these species
highly competitive advantages over other
species which for most have not survived.
If the objective is to save as many species as
possible, then most of conservation efforts
should be focused on tropical and subtropical
regions and in particular rainforests.
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Chapter IV
Anthropic Impacts
and Biodiversity
How humans have drastically
changed the balance of life on
Earth

Introduction Chapter IV:
Anthropic Impacts and Biodiversity
This chapter aims to focus on the pressures exerted on
biodiversity as a direct impact of human influences.
Humans have a tremendous impact on other species on the
planet should it be from direct impacts (e.g. Human food
consumption) or indirect impacts as a result of our
activities (e.g. mining, industrialization, pollutions…).
As the human population rapidly grows, the pressures
imposed on natural ecosystems and species are enormous
and resulting in numerous species extinctions. It is
estimated that species are disappearing at least 1000 times
the natural rate.
While some of the impacts are only felt locally where the
disturbance occurs, a more concerning trend now becoming
a reality is that, as a result of intense pollution worldwide,
ecosystems are becoming saturated on a global scale which
could well lead to massive extinctions in a near future.
Pollution of oceans is one example of such large scale
disturbance. Plastic residues for instance are now found in
almost any location on the planet even in the most remote
areas. Such residues are incorporated into food chains and
can even be monitored in species themselves.
The most significant impact that humans are causing to
global biodiversity will be a consequence of global warming
as a result of industrialization and the addition of
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere from the burning of
fossil fuels.
Under current climate negotiations the rise in temperature
alone will with certainty cause a wave of massive
biodiversity loss onto which pollution issues will add on.
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IV.1 (a) Deforestation
Deforestation is one of the major threats to
biodiversity.
Forests and especially rainforests of equatorial
and subtropical regions hold some of the Earth
richest ecosystems.
Deforestation has however been increasing
significantly over the past decades to the point
where it has now reached alarming rates and
associated species loss.
The island of Borneo forests as well as the
Amazon are losing tremendous superficies of
forest each year due to logging activities mostly
for the construction and paper industry.
Significant deforestation has also been rising in
recent years in relation to agriculture and the
plantation of monocultures for biofuels.
Deforestation has devastating effects on the rich
biodiversity that these ecosystems hold by
destroying habitats of numerous species and
destabilizing the food chains resulting in the
collapse of the ecosystems.
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Forests are vanishing around the world at an alarming rate. Forests provide habitats for numerous species.
As forests disappear so is the biodiversity that inhabits within.
IV.1 (b)
There are very few primary forests
left in the world and most of them are
critically endangered.
Most of these forests are only present
in national parks and in areas where
human development has not
intensified.
Once destroyed, a forest is either lost
or will take thousands of years to
recover.
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Many still have the misconception
that because land is covered by
“green” vegetation such as common
grass species, we are preserving
biodiversity.
This concept is wrong, if one species
disappears so are many other
species which depend on it to
survive.
=> Preserving a diversity of plant
species is crucial for preserving
biodiversity of other life forms.
IV.1 (c)
Replacing natural forests with planted monocultures is a major threat to biodiversity…
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IV.2 (a) Mining
Mining activities are rapidly expending around the world
due to the rising demand in metals and other resources.
The sole activity of mining can have devastating effects
on biodiversity, especially in isolated ecosystems and bio-
diverse areas.
Examples of mining activities which are putting severe
pressures on the biodiversity and ecosystems can be
found in areas such as Indonesia, Madagascar or New
Caledonia which are all classified as biodiversity hotspots.
Terrestrial biodiversity is most concentrated in the top
upper layer of the soil. Mining activities which completely
wipe out the top part of the soil destroys whichever life
form and habitats are present. The soil once exposed is
easily eroded and carried out to sea impacting reef
formations and marine life as well.
Mining activities have devastating impacts on the
environment and biodiversity in particular, especially in
bio-diverse locations.
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IV.2 (b)
Mining is one of the most environmental destructive and unsustainable practices. Especially in biodiversity
rich areas.
Many mines are located in biodiversity
sensitive areas including biodiversity
hotspots like Madagascar. These mines
have devastating impacts resulting from
the installation of the mine (from large
scale deforestation to the operation and
after life of the mine).
The impacts of these mines often extend
much beyond the mining area as they
require the cutting of roads, heavy
machinery and reject numerous toxic
compounds into the environment affecting
the surrounding environment on a large
scale.
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Many nations depend almost entirely on resources
from the oceans as a primary food supply.
Most of the oceans resources are however harvested
extensively by only a few industrialized nations.
Fish stocks and other marine resources are harvested
far beyond their regeneration ability.
At the current rate of fishing, most fish stocks will be
extinct by mid-century.
Adoption of sustainable fishing practices respectful of
species reproductive rate is crucial in order to avoid
the collapse of most marine ecosystems.
Fish should be harvested from farming rather than the
oceans. However the current aquaculture practices
are far from sustainable.
IV.3 (a) Over Fishing
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The replacement of traditional local fishing with international industrial fishing has devastating effects on
the worlds marine species. At the current rate It is estimated that most large commercial fish species will
be extinct by 2040.
IV.3 (b)
Traditional fishing methods have been replaced by industrialized and more productive fishing practices.
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IV.3 (C)
As industrial fishing deplates the worlds ocean resources and marine biodiversity, it also creates social
problems by depleting the stocks which are no longer available for local communities to feed on…
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As the top predator in the oceans, Sharks play a very important
role in maintaining ecosystems stability.
Worldwide, populations of sharks are seriously pressured from
anthropic activities.
Most species of sharks are now at serious risks of extinction as a
result of overfishing.
The process of shark finning is having devastating impacts on shark
populations but also on entire ecosystems.
Shark fins are mostly collected to be sold as shark fin soup which is
considered a delicacy in Asian countries.
Sharks have a very slow reproductive rate and only have a few
young's in their life time.
At the current rate sharks are collected, numerous species of
sharks could become extinct within the next 10-20 years.
The disappearance or drastic diminution of sharks in the oceans
will have devastating effects on the entire marine ecosystem.
IV.3 (d) Case study: Sharks,
a Critical Problem
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All Shark species must become protected or
they will face extinction within a few
decades only…
Shark finning is a threat to shark
populations worldwide with serious
implications for marine ecosystems stability.
Shark finning is a very unsustainable
practice which should become banned or at
least strictly regulated.
IV.3 (e) Shark Finning
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We do not know the full extent or consequences that a sharp diminution or even disappearance of sharks will have
on marine ecosystems. We however know that they play a critical role.
IV.3 (f)
Sharks have been mediatized
as a “human killing machine”.
It has now been clearly
established that such
statement is false. Sharks as a
top predator play a critical
role in maintaining oceans
ecosystem stability.
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IV.4 Illegal Trading
of Species
Illegal trading of endangered species is a growing
problem.
As species become more and more under threat
and on the verge of extinction, the price of such
species on the black market keeps on rising.
Illegal killing and selling of endangered species
has a serious impact on the stability of these
fragile populations which in many instances
pushes these species to extinction.
Examples of species which are valued include
tigers, parrots and fish mostly originating from
tropical and subtropical regions.
while some endangered species are traded as
living organisms others such as elephants are
killed for the sole purpose of extracting parts of
the animals (e.g. Ivory, tiger powder).
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IV.5 (a) Agriculture
Over the past century agriculture has increased dramatically in
response to the exponentially growing human population and the
need to feed them.
In addition to its fast expansion, agriculture has drifted away from
traditional practices to highly industrialized and optimized processes.
In order to cope with such demand, agriculture has become
increasingly dependent on fertilizers and pesticides.
The use of genetically engineered plantations is also a rising threat to
biodiversity. Species genetically modified, when introduced into the
environment, compete with natural species.
Agriculture by its nature is also a major threat to biodiversity by
spreading monocultures.
In order to find the ever increasing space required for agriculture,
tremendous spaces of land initially occupied by primary forests and
other ecosystems are destroyed removing in the process the diversity
of species which in many instances were only found in these specific
locations.
A growing problem is also the rise of lands used for monoculture
plantations destined for biofuel production. This new usage has for
consequence to even put more pressure and increase the need for
further agricultural lands.
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In order to preserve
biodiversity we must find
and shift to new food
production methods not
requiring such extensive
land use (e.g. vertical
farms?)
IV.5 (b)
Agriculture is one of the main threats to biodiversity. Worldwide, entire ecosystems are wiped out
(such as forests) and reconverted for agricultural purposes which has major implications for
biodiversity and has resulted in the loss of numerous species. Today this trend is even pushed further
with the need for biofuel crops.
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IV.5 (c)
Pesticides used in agriculture can affect animal reproduction adding further pressures on biodiversity.
In addition to monocultures
land conversion. A very
significant amount of
pesticides and fertilizers are
added to industrial crops.
These two elements kill
numerous species resulting
in significant biodiversity
loss going much beyond the
crop areas as the substances
are transmitted through food
chains
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IV.6 Bio-Engineering
Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are a
threat to natural species in the environment.
The genes within GMO enter in competition with
natural genes occurring in the environment.
We are uncertain of the impacts that such GMO
will have on other species.
However, it has been proven that GMO lead to
monocultures and mutations within natural
species.
By introducing GMO into the environment we are
risking the loss of naturally occurring species in
favor of genetically modified ones.
=> GMO are a major threat to global
biodiversity.
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IV.7 Industrialisation and
Associated Waste
Since the industrial revolution, the rise of industries of all
forms and sectors have been taking place in most nations.
This rapid change of activities has driven the rise of very
diverse environmental pressures including the generation
of very large amounts of chemical wastes and other
disturbances such as noise and atmospheric emissions.
Pollution generated by all nations has now far exceeded
local impacts and effects on a global scale are starting to
arise. For instance trace amounts of certain pollutants such
as residues of hydrocarbons (e.g. plastic bags) can now be
found in any given place on Earth.
Such background pollution is putting further pressure on
ecosystems around the world which are struggling to adapt
and cope with the change in surrounding environment.
Usually under natural conditions such changes in the
chemistry of the environment occurs over millions of years
which permits adaptive changes, however species are
unable to adopt to such a rapid change now occurring over
several decades only.
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IV.8 (a) Pollution and
Biodiversity
Pollution is a human created vision of the state of our
environment.
Without a human vision of the world in which we live, the
concept of pollution would simply not exist.
Pollution can be seen as an unusual level of a substance which
disturbs the surrounding environment and especially
biodiversity.
Due to industrialization pollution has become one of the
greatest threat to global biodiversity.
Many species cannot cope with the rapid changes in physical
parameters which are occurring to our environment.
High levels of pollution results in toxicity. All substances are
toxic it all depends on the level of occurrence and to which
capacity organisms can tolerate the substance.
=> We are releasing substances in the environment to such a
level that they are becoming toxic to many organisms.
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IV.8 (b)
While some substances require
large amounts to be toxic to
organisms, numerous human
made substances have significant
impacts on organisms even in
very low concentrations.
While some substances only stay in the environment for short periods of times, others stay very long. These are
the most concerning pollutants as they do not deteriorate and end up entering food chains.
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Eutrophication (or algal bloom) is an increase in the
concentration of nutrient content to an extent that
it increases the primary productivity of the water
body. In other terms, it is the "bloom“ or great
increase of phytoplankton in a water body.
Negative environmental effects include
particularly anoxia, or loss of oxygen in the water
with severe reductions in fish and other animal
populations. Other species may experience an
increase in population that negatively affects other
species in the local ecosystem.
As pollution (Nitrates & Phosphates) from sources
such as agriculture increases, more and more water
bodies are experiencing eutrophication which is
putting pressure on the biodiversity of these
ecosystems.
IV.8 (c) Case Study:
Eutrophication
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IV.9 (a) Climate Change
and Biodiversity
Since the industrial revolution, human activities have
added tremendous amounts of green house gases into
the atmosphere. By doing so we are changing the
composition of the atmosphere which results into the
Earth becoming warmer through the action of the
greenhouse effect being amplified in the process.
One of the consequences of global warming will be to
affect biodiversity.
Numerous species of plants and animals are already
responding to warmer temperatures by moving to
higher altitudes or latitudes. Many species unable to
adapt or migrate fast enough will however become at
increased risk of extinction.
Scientists estimate that we could lose half of all
species present on the planet today through the
impacts of climate change alone by the end of the
century.
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IV.9 (b)
Climate Change and Biodiversity loss:
It is here important to highlight and emphasize on
the link between climate change and biodiversity
loss.
It has taken millions of years for species to adapt to
their given ecosystems. During this time numerous
changes in the climate system have occurred.
However, climate change that we observe today is
occurring very fast (as opposed to most geological
climate shifts) and is the result of mainly anthropic
activities (and therefore could be slowed down)
Most species on Earth happen to have adapted to be
very sensitive to even slight variations in outside
parameters such as air pressure, or ambient
temperature. Most scientists have agreed that
numerous species will simply not be able to cope
with the rise in atmospheric and oceanic
temperatures which are predicted under various
scenarios (including the most optimistic ones).
To further confirm the above, numerous studies on
fossils and geological observations have concluded
that rapid climate shifts have always resulted in
massive species extinction events.
If temperatures were to rise by 2 degrees
centigrade by 2100 (as predicted under most
scenarios) this alone will without doubt result in
the loss of a very significant portion of all species
present on the Earth today (most still unknown).
It makes little sense to act to preserve biodiversity
in given ecosystems today but on the other hand
to ignore the much greater threat that climate
change will have on biodiversity and these
ecosystems in the short to medium term.
Thus acting to limit the worse impacts of climate
change by reducing GHG emissions will also help in
preserving species on Earth..
=> Maintaining the Earth Climate and preserving
biodiversity cannot go without one another.
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The impact of global warming on the oceans biodiversity will be disastrous. As sea level rises and oceans become
more acidic due to the absorption of CO2, biodiversity in shallow marine ecosystems will sharply decrease.
IV.9 (c)
Most experts agree that coral reefs
around the world will not be able to
survive a 2 degree Celcius rise in
atmospheric temperatures.
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IV.9 (d)
Coastal ecosystems and their inhabiting biodiversity will be greatly affected as a result of global sea
level rise.
As sea level rises, large coastal areas will become permanently
flooded. In addition, the salty waters will infiltrate further and
further inland. Many species of plants and animals will not be
able to cope with this change in soil salinity. Sea level rise
alone will result in species extinctions…
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IV.9 (e)
The thought of the scale of species extinctions through climate change alone is disturbing. If predictions by the
scientific community are correct, almost half of all species present on Earth today will become extinct by 2100 as a
sole consequence of increased global temperatures. We must however keep in mind that in addition, there are many
other factors which will drive even further species extinctions such as global pollution, habitat destruction….
We could loose half of the world total biodiversity from the impacts of climate change alone by the end of the century.
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IV.9 (f)
Climate Change is the most serious threat to global biodiversity loss.
At the current rate of warming, the loss of biodiversity as a result
of climate change will be disastrous…
Despite that deforestation
and other threats have
already alone very significant
and disastrous consequences
on biodiversity, climate
change will continue to affect
all the planet ecosystems at
increasing pressures
proportional to the rise in
ambient temperatures.
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IV.10 (a) Human
Disturbances /
Population Growth
Human population is a major threat to biodiversity.
With a current population of near 7 billion people,
humans are the main cause of environmental
disturbance on the planet which includes major
impacts on biodiversity.
A control over the growth of the worlds population is
inevitable if we want to preserve the diversity of
species present on Earth today.
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IV.10 (b) World
Population Predictions
World population is expected to exceed 9 billion
by 2050.
In order to feed a rapidly growing population,
agricultural fields are expending exponentially
with major impacts on biodiversity.
In order to keep up with the demand more land
needs to be cultivated, more pollution occurs.
This results in more and more pressures put on
ecosystems.
Humans and human related activities are
already the greatest threat to biodiversity.Source: UNEP
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IV.10 (c)
The environment will always be there, preserving our environment is not about preserving the
Earth but whether we and future generations want to live in an environment that has suffered the
impacts of human activities…
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Despite that ecotourism can have beneficial impacts
on biodiversity conservation, if not well managed the
impacts of mass tourisms can be disastrous.
Examples of the impacts of the tourisms industry on
biodiversity ranges from the impacts of constructing
an hotel in a remote location to massive arrival of
tourists from a cruise ship on a beach.
In a rapidly changing world where population
movements are rapidly increasing, bio-diverse areas
must increasingly be protected to preserve this
biodiversity.
The best way to protect biodiversity rich areas is to
limit the number of people at one time in these sites
with access granted on a permit basis.
IV.11 (a) Mass Tourisms
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IV.11 (b)
Mass tourisms can have high impacts
on biodiversity. While a small group
of people may cause little
disturbance, a few hundred or
thousands in one biodiverse
sensitive place at the same time can
be a major disturbance.
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www.biodiversity.sg

"The Diversity Of Life On Earth: From Heritage to Extinction" (260p) an e-book on sustainable development by sylvain richer de forges

"The Diversity Of Life On Earth: From Heritage to Extinction" (260p) an e-book on sustainable development by sylvain richer de forges

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"The Diversity Of Life On Earth: From Heritage to Extinction" (260p) an e-book on sustainable development by sylvain richer de forges