1. MANUAL FOR RESEARCH
PROJECT
MS Program in
Business Administration and Management Sciences
Institute of Business & Management
University of Engineering and Technology
Lahore
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2. MANUAL FOR
PROJECT PROPOSAL
AND
PROJECT REPORT
OF
Institute of Business & Management
University of Engineering and Technology
Lahore
University of Engineering and Technology
Lahore
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3. FOREWORD
The Project Handbook has been prepared with a view to providing our MS
students with some basic and necessary information on writing a research
proposal and final project report. This will assist the students in thinking
through many aspects of crafting implementing and defending the research
project. It is our attempt to share some of many ideas that have surfaced in the
past that definitely make the task of completion of research so much easier. We
have tried to give some suggestions on the following: selection of a topic,
developing a project statement, writing Literature Review, Research Design,
Data Analysis, Conclusion and Findings, Bibliography and such other necessary
components.
Guidelines of a research report have been provided on the format and style of
the project and specimens have been annexed for guidance. We hope that all
given information will help you in choosing the project title, and conducting
research work.
With this in mind enjoy the manual. We hope it will help you to finish your
research in good shape.
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4. INTRODUCTION
This master level Research Project Manual is designed for all MS students. The
students will be required to conduct a research study in the academic field of the
chosen area after completion of the course work for the partial fulfilment of their
degree program.
The research project carries a weight of (06) credits and is an integral part of MS
Degree Programme. This manual has been developed to provide broad
guidelines to the students and help them in preparing their project synopsis and
final report.
The university hopes that after following these guidelines the students of this
prestigious programme will be in a position to write an excellent research report
and create a value addition for them.
Wish you good luck
Research Team
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5. Research Proposal and Final Report
Institute of business and management’s mission is to deliver the MS degree in
such a way that can equip the students with latest managerial skill so that they
may be able to contribute effectively at their work places.
All research reports normally use the same format. It does not matter whether
you are doing a customer satisfaction research, employee’s opinion survey,
research on impact of globalization research or a marketing research. All have
the same basic structure and format. Their contents may be different.
The distinguishing feature of research is an original contribution to knowledge.
Thus the final research report for the project course is a document whose
purpose is to prove that the student has made an original contribution to
knowledge.
The research report must highlight the following important aspects:
• Student has identified a worthwhile question or problem, relating to the
generic discipline of Management Sciences (Business or Public
Administration as per his or her enrolment)
• She/he has solved the problem or answered the question(s) raised during
research
• Their contribution to knowledge lies in their findings.
At the outset, students of MS after their 2 nd semester of degree program are
required to (i) To select the research topic in consultation with the Supervisor
provided to them with the mutual consent (ii) To develop and submit a research
proposal / synopsis to the department for approval / acceptance prior to starting
their research report/study.
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6. Stages of the Research Process
Problem Discovery and
Discovery and Definition
Definition
Conclusion
Research
and Report
Design
and so on
Data
Sampling Processing and
Analysis
Data
Gathering
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7. The research process
1. Observation
2. Preliminary Data gathering (Preliminary Data gathering about situation
i.e. broad problem area)
3. Problem definition
4. Literature Review & Theoretical framework (variables identified)
5. Hypotheses
6. Research design
7. Data collection ,analysis and interpretation
8. Deduction
9. Report writing
10. Report presentation
11. Decision making
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8. WHAT IS RESEARCH
Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING ANSWERS to
QUESTIONS or solutions of problems.
1) Systematic: because there is a definite set of procedures and steps which
the students/researchers will follow. There are certain things in the
research process which are always done in order to get the most accurate
results.
2) Organized: in that there is a structure or method in going about doing
research. It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused
and limited to a specific scope.
3) Questions: are central to research. If there is no question, then the answer
is of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important
questions. Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose.
4) Finding Answers: is the end of all research. Whether it is the result after a
testing hypothesis or answer to a simple question, research is successful
when we find solutions answers. Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still
an answer.
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9. IMPROTANT STEPS
Identifying a Project/Research Topic
Research begins with defining a topic in which a student may be interested and
willing to put effort. Research topic should relate to the subject whom the
students have studied in their programme (Management Sciences, Business or
Public Administration). The three significant characteristics of a research
topic/problem are that is should be significant, researchable and new or add a
new angle to established facts. Some important elements of selecting a topic are
as under:
• First you select a problem/topic in a general area that is related to the area
of your expertise and interest. Second step is to narrow down the general
problem area to make it specific, and researchable.
• Formulate a research topic in order to achieve your objective.
• Access to the data must be ensured about the topic prior to its finalization.
• The topic should be open to methods of research.
• The selected topic should be in a field in which there is real need for the
research.
• Must keep in mind why the research is important and to whom.
• Students need to describe the research context clearly.
While thinking about research topic:
• Discuss ideas with colleagues
• Browse the literature, especially journals
• Discuss ideas with your supervisor – he/she is an expert within the
discipline and can help you decide on an appropriate topic
Setting the topic in context
When placing your topic in context it is often useful to think about the following:
• What is the scope of the topic?
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10. • What is the purpose of the research?
• Who are the intended audience?
• What is the time period?
• What is the geographical coverage?
• What are the relevant/related disciplines?
Some More Tips for Problem Formulation
"Well begun is half done" --Aristotle, quoting an old proverb
RESEARCH PAPER TOPIC IDEAS
Try to pick a topic that you are interested in. You are going to have a lot of
research and experimentation ahead of you so it helps to produce good science if
you have enthusiasm in what you are doing. Find a broad topic and do a little
preliminary work, perhaps making a shortlist of possible areas of interest.
1. Be realistic. If you have difficulty with transport then there is no point
picking a project in some far-flung, inaccessible area. You may have to go
back to resample or clarify your data. For a field study that requires lots of
walking or climbing you need to be reasonably fit. If you are not very
good at approaching strangers then avoid a subject that requires you to
ask people to fill in questionnaires. Play to your strengths and avoid your
weaknesses.
2. With the above in mind, check out the facilities your department offers.
For example, some departments offer help with statistics or using
computer programs.
3. Take into account the amount of time and resources you have. It is better
to pick a focused topic and be thorough than to try and perform some
complex research that you struggle to finish. Your topic must be broad
enough to ensure that you have enough data but narrow enough to
maximize your time and resources.
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11. 4. Try and be a little different; if a large number of students research the
same topics then there could be a lot of people fighting over one copy of a
book or journal.
5. Will you need help? For some areas of research you may need to ask the
help of friends to take samples. An example is psychology where you
need to tempt people to answer your questions or perform your tests.
What measures will you need to entice people? Asking favors, bribery or
threats? Try to ensure that you have thought about this before you start.
6. Remember that people are there to help you. If you not sure of where to
start, often the most difficult part, do not be afraid to ask questions from
those more knowledgeable in the subject. It is common to feel a little
nervous and overwhelmed before starting on a long project but that will
pass. Remember that the reputation of your supervisor and department is
judged by how well you perform in your research paper so they will try
their best to guide you.
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12. Types of Business research
Applied research
This research is conducted to solve a current problem faced by the organization
in the work setting, demanding a timely solution.
Basic research (fundamental, pure)
Following are the characteristics of basic research:
a. It is to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how
certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved.
b. The findings of such research contribute to the building of knowledge in
the various functional areas of business.
Selection of Study
The students are advised to choose some current issue faced by the organization
in which they are going to conduct their research. Here are some examples of
Applied and basic research issues, the preference should be given to the applied
research.
Applied Research topics
1. Causes of low productivity of employees of Fazal Steel mills Islamabad
2. The possible measures to make the budgetary control system of NHA
effective
3. Human Resource practices to ensure Job Satisfaction in Askari Bank
limited with Special emphasis on performance appraisal.
4. The Impact of Compensation, Training & Development on the
organisational Commitment of Employees of PTCL
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13. Basic Research Topics
1. Effective measures to stop bankruptcy.
2. Implications of the theories of Scientific School of Management in 21 st
century.
3. TQM / Is It Effective In Reaching Quality Goals?
4. Management of the Interview and Hiring Function
5. Employee Stock Ownership Plans
How to Develop Project Proposal / Synopsis
The aim of the project proposal must be to ensure that:
• There is a need for the research and it’s significant and important.
• Student is contributing something original in the research report.
• The topic is feasible in terms of the availability of data.
• The topic must match with the academic field i.e. Management
Sciences.
• Research can be completed within the expected time period.
The project proposal helps you focus your research aim, clarify its importance
and the need, describe the methods, identify problems and plan alternatives.
Preparing a project proposal is an important part of your research. Following
key elements must be included in the project proposal:
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14. Chapter 1 Introduction
1. Introduction of study along with its origin, history, Background,
and rationale of the study
2. Broad problem area:
- Area in which researcher has find some specific problem to
carry out his research
3. Statement of the Problem
4. Objectives of the Study
5. Significance of the Study
6. Delimitation
7. Research Hypothesis or Research Question
Chapter 2 Literature review
Distribute this chapter according to heading and sub-heading
Chapter 3 Research Methodology
1. Research Design
2. Population of the Study
3. Sampling Techniques
4. Sample Size
5. Research Tools
6. Data Collection
Chapter 4 Data Analysis and Interpretation (Tools and Techniques)
Chapter 5 Conclusion
1. Findings
2. Conclusion
3. Recommendations
Bibliography / References
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15. OUTLINE / STRUCTURE/ CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS
CHAPTER 1
1) Introduction
This section begins with a few short introductory paragraphs (couple of pages).
In introduction the context of the research is made clear and choice of the topic is
defended. The relationship between the research problem and the research
objectives must be explained. Introduction section sets the stage for the project
report and puts the topic in perspective. It contains general statements about the
need for this study. It is a brief description of what the project report is all about.
It briefly summarizes the topic and some of the reasons why it is worthwhile to
do research on this specific topic. Introduction is a bird eye view of the answers
to the main questions that will be answered in your research report. The basic
goal of the introduction is to catch the attention of the reader. Key point is that
when you are writing the introduction; put yourself in your readers’ position.
2) Background Information of the Topic
Brief background information of your topic is necessary. It could be possible that
the reader may not have any experience with some of the material you have
provided in your research report. So you need to give it to him or her.
3) Statement of the Problem
The statement of the problem is the focal point of the research. A problem does
not necessarily mean that something is seriously wrong with current situation
that needs to be rectified immediately. A “problem” could simply indicate an
interest in an issue where finding the right answers might help to improve an
existing situation. Thus, it is fruitful to define a problem in a situation where a
gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal states. The statement of
problem should be brief, concise, and very specific statement not more than 5 –6
sentences in a paragraph.
4) Objectives of the Study
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16. Objectives are statements of specific actions needed to accomplish the purpose.
Enough objectives should be included to achieve the purpose, but objectives not
required to achieve the purpose should be omitted. This purpose statement or
paragraph explains what the study intends to find. The purpose of the study
might be to:
• Overcome the difficulty
• Understand the causes or effects
• Provide a new interpretation
• Understand what makes – successful or unsuccessful
5) Significance of the Study
This section creates a perspective for looking at the problem. It points out how
study relates to the larger issue and uses a persuasive rationale to justify the
reason for the study. It makes the purpose worthwhile. The significance of the
study may be:
• Why is your study important?
• To whom is it important?
• What benefits will occur if your study is done?
6) Limitations (Delimit your research scope)
The investigator states the restrictions and limitations which he imposes on his
study. It is a statement of the limit or scope of investigation. The statement will
provide information concerning who, what, where and how many. It will
determine the boundaries of the research in hand.
This delimitation will mention the geographical limits of the study i.e. whether
the study will be covering a single town, a district, a region, a state or a country.
It will specify the time limits of the study i.e. whether the study will be spread
over a few days, a few months, a year or a number of years. It will have to
specify the type of institution to be covered. Recognition of the limitation of the
study helps to focus attention on pertinent objectives and helps to minimize the
danger of oversimplification.
The scope, limitations of the research must clearly be mentioned in the proposal
as well as in the Research report so that the other researcher might design their
research in the same work setting might prevent their research from duplication
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17. of results. The depth of understanding regarding the groups must be clear;
additionally the limitations of your data gathering tool which you have used
must also be discussed in this section of your report. Describe the boundaries of
the study that you determine. Delimitations define the parameters of the
investigation. In academic research the delimitations will frequently deal with
such items as population/sample, treatment(s), setting, and instrumentation.
A sample of this section is given below for you guidance:
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18. Limitations
1. Delimitations define the parameters of the investigation. In business research the
delimitations will frequently deal with such items as population/sample,
treatment(s), setting, and instrumentation. For example, the study may focus on
employee in only one category or measure aptitude using only a group intelligence
test. External validity deals with the extent to which the results of a study can be
generalized to different subjects, settings, experimenters, and so on; the study has
external validity. However, there are many threats to external validity which cause
the results of a study to be specific to some limited group of people and/or set of
conditions. These threats are
(a) Those dealing with generalizations to populations (What population of subjects
can be expected to behave in the same way as did the sample subjects?), and
(b) Those dealing with the "environment" of the work (Under what conditions, i.e.,
settings, treatments, experimenters, dependent variables, and so on, can the same
results be expected?).
2. The limitations set forth reservations, qualifications, or weaknesses inherent in the
design. Generally, these will reflect anticipated inadequacies in regard to internal
validity of results. A study has internal validity if the confounding variables have
been converted to either controlled or randomized variables and if the research is
designed in such a way that it is possible to estimate the size of the random variation
so that the "experimental" variation may be compared to it for significance. The goal
is to recognize inherent threats to internal validity in the work setting.
3. No data collection tool can give perfect and quality data for research because of its
inherent limitations and due to the poor response of some respondents therefore this
is also a threat for external validity of results.
4. Because the limitations of a study cannot be fully specified until the research is
completed, therefore the apparent delimitations and/or limitations are given
regarding the population/sample, treatments, setting, and instrumentation.
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19. 7) Research Hypothesis
According to Leedey and Ormond (2001) “A hypothesis is a logical supposition,
a reasonable guess, an educated conjecture. It provides a tentative explanation
for a phenomenon under investigation. However, hypotheses are not unique to
research. Hypotheses are constantly generated in the human mind as we work to
understand day-to-day phenomena. By formulating a series of reasonable
guesses of cause and effect we are able to understand and explore the events in
our surrounding environment.”
The hypothesis is formulated after observation and the review of preliminary
data prior to the execution of the study. The hypothesis logically follows the
review and it is based on the implications of previous research as it precedes the
study procedure because the entire study is determined by the hypothesis
(including: subject, instruments, design, procedure, analysis and conclusions).
The hypothesis should be logical and testable. Hypotheses are essential for
experimental studies, for co-relational studies and for studies
determining/measuring the impact of one or more variables on other variables.
HOW TO WRITE A HYPOTHESIS
One of the crucial parts of designing and writing up any research paper is how to
write a hypothesis.
In fact, it is not as difficult as it looks, and if you have followed the steps of the
scientific process and found an area of research and potential research problem,
then you may already have a few ideas. It is just about making sure that you are
asking the right questions and generating your hypothesis statements correctly.
A research hypothesis is a testable statement of opinion. It is created from the
research question by replacing the words "Is there" with the words "There is",
and also replacing the question mark with a period. The hypotheses for the three
sample research questions would be as follows:
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20. A sample of Research Questions, Hypothesis and Null Hypothesis is as
follow:
Questions
Is there a significant relationship between the corporate level of managers
and their attitudes towards the revised advertising budget?
Is there a significant relationship between perceived need for the new
product and the price that customers would be willing to pay for it?
Is there a significant difference between Hindus and minority Muslims
residents with respect to what they feel are the most important problems
facing the community?
Hypothesis
There is a significant relationship between the corporate level of managers
and their attitudes towards the revised advertising budget.
There is a significant relationship between perceived need for the new
product and the price that customers would be willing to pay for it.
There is a significant difference between Hindus and minority Muslims
residents with respect to what they feel are the most important problems
facing the community.
It is not possible to test a hypothesis directly. Instead, you must turn the
hypothesis into a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is created from the
hypothesis by adding the words "no" or "not" to the statement. For example, the
null hypotheses for the three examples would be:
Null Hypotheses
There is no significant relationship between the corporate level of managers
and their attitudes towards the revised advertising budget.
There is no significant relationship between perceived need for the new
product and the price that customers would be willing to pay for it.
There is no significant difference between Hindus and minority Muslims
residents with respect to what they feel are the most important problems
facing the community.
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21. 8) Research Question
The research question must be stated in such a way that these are testable and
answerable. Usually a descriptive research may try to find answers to questions
rather than test hypothesis.
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the literature
related to your selected area of study. The review should describe, summarise,
evaluate and clarify this literature. It should give a theoretical base for the
research and help you (the researcher) determine the nature of your research.
The purpose of a literature review is for you to take a critical look at the literature
(facts and views) that already exists in the area you are researching. A literature
review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited
scholars and researchers. The purpose of literature review is to convey to the
readers what knowledge and ideas have already been established on the topic,
and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature
review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the
problem or issue you are discussing or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a
descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries.
A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually
has an organized pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A
summary is a recap of important information of the area, but a synthesis is a re-
organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new
interpretation to old material or combine new and old interpretations, or it might
trace the intellectual progression in the field, including major debates.
Depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and
advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant, aspects.
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22. A literature review is a summary of previous research on a topic. Literature
reviews can be either a part of a large report of a research project, a thesis or a
bibliographic essay that is published separately in a scholarly journal. Some
questions to think about as you develop your literature review:
• What is known about the subject?
• Are there any gaps in the knowledge of the subject?
• Have areas of further study been identified by other researchers that you
may want to consider?
• What methods or problems were identified by others studying in the field
and how might they impact your research?
• What is the most productive methodology for your research based on the
literature you have reviewed?
• What is the current status of research in this area?
• What sources of information or data were identified that might be useful
to you?
Besides enlarging your knowledge about the topic, writing a literature review
lets you gain and demonstrate skills in two areas:
1. Information seeking: the ability to scan the literature efficiently, using
manual or computerized methods, to identify a set of useful articles and
books
2. Critical appraisal: the ability to apply principles of analysis to identify
unbiased and valid studies.
A crucial element of all research degrees is the review of relevant literature.
There are good reasons for spending time and effort on a review of the literature
before embarking on a research project. These reasons include:
• To identify gaps in the literature
• To avoid reinventing the wheel (this will save time and will stop you
from making the same mistakes as others)
• To carry on from where others have already reached (reviewing the
field allows you to build on the platform of existing knowledge and
ideas)
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23. • To increase breadth of knowledge of your subject area
• To provide the intellectual context for your own work, enabling you to
position your project relative to other work
• To demonstrate that you can access previous work in an area
• To identify information and ideas that may be relevant to your project
A good Literature Review
A literature review must do the following:
a. It should organized around and related directly to the
project/thesis or research question you are developing
b. Synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known
c. Identify areas of controversy in the literature
d. Formulate questions that need further research/project
The literature review develops a relationship between academics and your
research. Your task must be to show how the academic literature sheds light on
your topic. The purpose of the literature review is to refine the statement of the
research problem or question, not to offer a tutorial on the topic. Do not repeat
large passages from a text.
Final Note
A literature review is a piece of discursive prose, not a list describing or
summarizing one piece of literature after another. It’s usually a bad sign to see
every paragraph beginning with the name of a researcher. Instead, organize the
literature review into sections that present themes or identify trends, including
relevant theory. You are not trying to list all the material published, but to
synthesize and evaluate it according to the guiding concept of your
project/thesis or research question.
A sample of a portion of literature Review is given in the box below:
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24. Research Problem
“Impact of Advertisement on Fashion Industry”
Relevant Literature
A consumer preference for brands with a global image, even when quality and
value are not objectively superior, has been proposed as a reason for companies to
consider global brands (Taylor and Raymond, 2000). Therefore, Fashion Company
needs to identify the response of consumers worldwide to its global advertising for
such specific consumer segment. For instance, the fashion industry for women is
particularly relevant in terms of examining the feasibility of cross-national
segmentation. Research indicates that females tend to be more fashion conscious,
be more knowledgeable about fashion brands (Blyth, 2006), and read more fashion
magazines than male consumers (Putrevu, 2004). This implies that marketers need
to pay special attention to women when expanding and advertising fashion brands
to international markets. The fashion industry is characterized by a considerable
amount of standardized advertising. In fact, global advertising in fashion
magazines that help to create the image of a designer brand name for fashion
goods, such as apparel, accessories, and perfume, and has been used by many
leading firms (Blyth, 2006). Increasingly, some fashion marketers have discovered
that their advertising is directly linked to retail sales and strong retail performance
(Callan, 2006).
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25. Theoretical Framework
Theoretical framework is the foundation on which the entire research project is
based. It is logically developed, described and elaborated network of associations
among the variables relevant to the problem situation.
The purpose of the theoretical framework is to demonstrate the researcher’s
knowledge and expertise in the chosen field of research, concentrating on the
research problem. Although the study may be based on other researcher’s work
and publications, the relevant ‘message’ has to be the author’s own
interpretation.
The theoretical framework should contain the relevant information on the chosen
field of research, based on a study of the theoretical basis of the topic. The more
you are able to introduce new and novel viewpoints and critically evaluate their
relevance, the greater the merit of the work. New ideas and interpretations
ensure that the author’s own voice can be heard.
One way to construct the theoretical section is to work your way up from
existing studies to your own research problem. Then, at the end of the chapter,
you should put forward more comprehensive reasoning for your own choices,
thus gaining more credibility and strength for your interpretation from the
theoretical discourse of others. If the thesis introduces new research methods, or
uses less-known existing methods, these are introduced separately, either
directly after the theoretical framework or under a new sub-heading. A sample
theoretical frame work for reference is given below:
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26. Research problem: Employees Job Satisfaction
Independent Variables
Reward System
Training & Intervening Variable Dependent Variable
Development
Employees
Management
Job Satisfaction
Union
Style
Working
Environment
Manageme
Job Security nt Policies
Performance
Appraisal
Moderating Variable
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27. CHAPTER 3
1) Research Methodology
This chapter describes the basic research plan. It indicates the practical way in
which the whole research study/project has been organized. You have to
describe clearly what method will be used during your study for example
documentary research, face to face interviews, and questionnaire. The nature of
the study whether it is exploratory, descriptive and types of the research i.e.
survey, comparative or a case study must be stated.
The research methodology must be appropriate to the research question. You
need to explain why your chosen method is suitable for your research. At the
proposal stage well selected and clearly justified methodology should be
provided.
2) Research Design
Research design provides the glue that holds the research project together. A
design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the
research project - the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and
methods of assignment - work together to address the central research questions.
The term “Research Design” is often used to refer to the pragmatic aspects of the
way the research was conducted. The researcher needs to explain these matters
to the readers. How you plan to carry out the study should be thoroughly
described. Who will be involved, especially the sample and population and
sampling techniques should be clearly stated.
3) Population
It is incumbent on the research to clearly define the target population. Population
refers to the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the
researcher wishes to investigate. Most research in education and social sciences
involves the collection of data from human beings. The total numbers of
individuals to whom the results of the research are intended to apply constitute
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28. the research population. It is important to describe clearly and to explain the
nature of the population.
4) Sampling Technique
Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the
population. There are two major types of sampling design: Probability and Non-
Probability. Probability sampling includes random sampling, stratified
sampling, multi-stage sampling while non-probability sampling includes
convenient and judgemental sampling. The researcher must give the exact
technique which is used for selection of sample.
5) Sampling Size
A sample is a sub-set of population; it comprises some numbers selected from it.
There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and
judgement. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the
population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which
it is drawn. It is not possible to collect the data from all individuals of
population for the researcher that is why he/she selects a sample size from the
population which might consist of 100, 150 or 200 etc numbers/elements from
the population.
5) CONCERNS IN STATISTICAL SAMPLING
Representativeness
This is the primary concern in statistical sampling. The sample obtained from the
population must be representative of the same population. This can be
accomplished by using randomized statistical sampling techniques or probability
sampling like cluster sampling and stratified sampling. The reason behind
representativeness being the primary concern in statistical sampling is that it
allows the researcher to draw conclusions for the entire population. If the sample
is not representative of the population, conclusions cannot be drawn since the
results that the researcher obtained from the sample will be different from the
results if the entire population is to be tested.
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29. Practicability
Practicability of statistical sampling techniques allows the researchers to estimate
the possible number of subjects that can be included in the sample, the type of
sampling technique, the duration of the study, the number of materials, ethical
concerns, availability of the subjects/samples, the need for the study and the
amount of workforce that the study demands. All these factors contribute to the
decisions of the researcher regarding to the study design.
Sampling Risks
There are two types of sampling risks, first is the risk of incorrect acceptance of
the research hypothesis and the second is the risk for incorrect rejection. These
risks pertain to the possibility that when a test is conducted to a sample, the
results and conclusions may be different from the results and conclusions when
the test is conducted to the entire population.
The risk of incorrect acceptance pertains to the risk that the sample can yield a
conclusion that supports a theory about the population when it is actually not
existent in the population. On the other hand, the risk of incorrect rejection
pertains to the risk that the sample can yield a conclusion that rejects a theory
about the population when in fact, the theory holds true in the population.
Comparing the two types of risks, researchers fear the risk of incorrect rejection
more than the risk of incorrect acceptance. Consider this example; an
experimental drug was tested for its debilitating side effects. With the risk of
incorrect acceptance, the researcher will conclude that the drug indeed has
negative side effects but the truth is that it doesn’t. The entire population will
then abstain from taking the drug. But with the risk of incorrect rejection, the
researcher will conclude that the drug has no negative side effects. The entire
population will then take the drug knowing that it has no side effects but all of
them will then suffer the consequences of the mistake of the researcher.
29

30. 6) Research Tools/Instruments
Once you have selected a topic, you must clearly define the research tools. It
helps if you actually state your topic idea. Research tools are basically
instruments used for collecting the required information from the sampled
population. These instruments include questionnaire, interview, observation,
check list and sometimes documents. Students are required to clearly mention
the scales used for the development of questionnaire in research report proposal.
7) Data Collection
Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and collecting
business. A formal data collection process is necessary as it ensures that data
gathered is both defined and accurate and that subsequent decisions based on
arguments embodied in the findings are valid.
DATA COLLECTION TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
Administering written questionnaires
A written questionnaire (also referred to as self-administered questionnaire) is a data
collection tool in which written questions are presented that are to be
answered by the respondents in written form.
A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways, such as by:
• Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to answer
the questions and asking for mailed responses;
• Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time, giving
oral or written instructions, and letting the respondents fill out the
questionnaires; or
• Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them later.
The questions can be either open-ended or closed (with pre-categorised
answers).
30

31. Types of questionnaire:
There are several types of questionnaire and each is designed to explore different
aspects or elicit different responses. Some of the more common include:
1. Dichotomous Multiple choice
2. Importance
3. Bipolar
4. Likert
5. Rating scale 1 - 5
6. Buying propensity
These can be used in any combination as long as the questionnaire is not too long
and it is focussed. In the fictitious examples below the data is merely illustrative.
Dichotomous
This is a fairly typical basic type of question, not too intrusive and merely asks
you to answer yes or no. As such it cannot assess the degree of feelings in
between the poles:
Do you have a salary bank Account with National Bank?
Ye
Yes
s
No
Multiple choices
This is a question offering three or more answers - and allows a greater breadth
of response.
How did you first hear about Bank’s web site services?
1. Television
2. Radio
1
3. Newspaper
4. Magazine
5.
4
Internet
6. Other: Please Specify _______________ 31

32. 6
Importance
In this type of question the respondent is asked to rate the importance of an issue
to them on a scale of 1 to 5
Having another branch of National Bank in my Town
1 2 33 4 5
Extremely Very Somewhat Not very Not at all
Important Important Important Important Important
Bipolar
The question asks for a response to be marked between two opposite ends of the
scale:
How would you describe the local branch of National Bank:
Conveniently _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ Inconveniently
Friendly Unfriendly
Service Oriented Unhelpful
Efficient Inefficient
Likert
This question examines how strongly the respondent agrees with a statement
and can help assess the feelings of customers towards issues.
Development Financial Institutions generally give better services than banks?
Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree
Disagre Strongly
Agreed nor disagree e Disagree
1 2 3 4 5
4
32

33. Rating scale
This question type rates the replies in terms of a scale from e.g. poor to first class.
As with all these types of questions it is sometimes necessary to have an even
number of boxes. To avoid the middle of the road response, commonly taken by
those trying to avoid making a stand.
How would you rate the services of your local branch of national bank?
First Class Good Fair Poor Very Poor
Good
1 22 3 4 5
Buying propensity
This type of question is trying to elicit a customer's future intentions by asking
whether they might buy a product and can help assess the needs and likely take
up of a new product if developed.
Care needs to be taken with these questions as they may reflect wants rather than
needs!
If National Bank of Pakistan offers credit card facility, would you be more likely to avail it?
Definitely Probably Be unsure Probably Not Definitely Not
Probably
1 2 3 4 5
2
All of the above are quantitative type questions. What they ask is for a response
within pre-defined parameters that allows input into spreadsheets and hard
analysis. Although this facilitates the input into data analysis sheets and
subsequent number crunching - the respondent is not allowed to say what they
think. They can only answer the question by marking the pre-designated boxes.
33

34. Qualitative questions can allow more freedom for answers but are much harder
to analyze as each respondent will use his/her own words. Often the question
will be couched along the lines of:
Describe in your own words your opinion of National Bank’s local branch.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
This has the advantage that the respondent can say what s/he likes, which can
yield very interesting information that might not have been thought of at design
phase; but on the other side, that s/he can also respond in an unlimited and
often unconstructive manner, making analysis much harder. Whichever question
types are used they must always be designed with the express intention of:
1. inconveniencing the customer/respondents as little as possible;
2. being aimed at an homogeneous segment; and
3. Having been designed to elicit specific information that supports
your marketing initiative.
CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Data analysis can be descriptive, graphic and statistical. Often a combination of
all three forms is used. The analysis portion of the research report should be
described in detail. Each question requires its own analysis. Each question
should be answered using above mentioned methods of analysis. Different
techniques are used to analyze the data depending on the objectives of research
and research problem. The researcher must describe the technique or software
which he/she has used for data analysis.
34

35. Results of your research must be presented clearly and concisely. Tables and
figures should be correctly presented. Results must be discussed in terms of your
research topic and objectives. There should be a relationship between results,
problem statement, literature review and your research objective.
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
At the beginning of this chapter the purpose, objectives, questions, or hypotheses
must be presented in this form of a summary of the research study limitations
that might have hindered or restricted the researcher. The conclusions are your
interpretations of the meanings of the findings based on the data and their
relationships to the literature, the problem, and the solution of the problem.
Avoid to present recommendations based on your own beliefs and biases that
are not supported by your data. Recommendations must be based on the data
analysis and must be compatible with the objectives of the study. There are two
types of recommendations; first are the recommendations related to the study,
second are the recommendations for other researchers.
References:
Students make a great mistake in referencing. The uniformity of referencing style
in a single draft of research report is always ignored by the students. It is
therefore strongly recommended all over the world to use APA referencing style
for all the references use in your text and in bibliography. A detailed guide has
been given in Appendix of this research manual for students’ guidance.
PLAGIARISM
In case of project report is found to be a plagiarized (it happens if you copy
somebody else’s work instead of doing your own) version of another project
report, research work/text, etc. Published or unpublished, student’s candidature
shall be cancelled and s/he shall be debarred forever from admission to any of
the University. In case of the plagiarism is proved after the award of the degree,
the degree shall be cancel/withdrawn. HEC Plagiarism policy is given below;
35

36. HIGHER EDUCATION COMMISION
PLAGIARISM POLICY
Preamble
Higher Education Commission in its efforts to improve the quality, credibility
and recognition of research work in Pakistan has devised this policy of
plagiarism. The policy consists of two components. The first component deals
with the unethical and illegal replication of the efforts of other researchers. On
the other hand, it also proposes measures to guard against malicious and bogus
complaints to prevent victimization and prosecution of original researchers.
Definition and Explanation
Plagiarism is defined as “taking and using the thoughts, writings and inventions of another
person as one’s own” (Concise Oxford Dictionary). Web based encyclopedia (Wikipedia)
explains that within academia, plagiarism by students, professors or researchers is
considered academic dishonesty or academic fraud and offenders are subject to
academic censure. For professors and researchers, who are supposed to be role models
for their students, plagiarism is a very serious offence and is punishable by sanctions
ranging from suspension to termination along with the loss of credibility and integrity.
Different Forms of Plagiarism
Verbatim or near verbatim copying or purposely paraphrasing portions of another
author’s papers or unpublished report without citing the exact reference.
• Copying elements from other’s papers such as equations and illustrations.
• Copying sentences without citing the source.
• Verbatim copying from reports by citing but not clearly differentiating what text has
been copied or not citing the source correctly.
• To unacknowledged use of computer programmes, mathematical models/algorithms,
computer software, macros, web pages, databases, mathematical derivations and
calculations, designs models and the like.
• Self plagiarism by verbatim or near verbatim re-use of significant portions of one’s
own work without citing the original source.
36

37. Aim of the policy
To raise awareness about plagiarism amongst students, teachers and researchers
and suggest means to avoid it. It also aims to discourage it by regulating and
authorizing punitive actions against those found guilty of the act.
Applicability
The policy is applicable to students, teachers, researchers and staff of all
institutions and organizations in Pakistan who are involved in writing or
publishing their work. Any person listing his CV on the website or any current
publication or applying for any benefit on the basis of published or presented
work that is plagiarized will be liable to be punished as per prescribed rules.
Responsibility of Institutions and Organisations
All institutions and organizations are responsible to apprise their students,
researchers and staff of the definition, implications and resulting punishments if
they are found guilty of plagiarism. Any University or Degree Awarding
Institution which does not adopt and implement this policy will have its degree
derecognized by HEC.
Reporting
Alleged complaints about plagiarism can be made to HEC Quality Assurance
Division or respective University/Organizations by emailing, post, fax or other
means. Following information needs to be provided:
• Complete reference of the plagiarized and allegedly plagiarized paper.
• Name, designation, address, email address and telephone number of the
complainant.
Investigation and Implementation
The complaints received through HEC or directly by a University will be dealt
with according to the procedure given below. The head of the University will
have discretion of not taking any action on anonymous complaints.
The Vice Chancellor/Rector/Head of Organization will have an obligation to:
37

38. a) Constitute a Plagiarism Standing Committee consisting of 3 senior faculty
members, a subject specialist, a senior student (only if a student is being
investigated) and a nominee of the HEC.
b) Provide the committee HEC’s guideline for functioning, clear terms of
reference and every opportunity to use all foreseeable means to
investigate the claim.
c) The members of the committee are to sign confidentiality statement about
the whole process of investigation.
d) Provide opportunity to the author/authors under investigation and the
complainant to justify their positions.
The “Plagiarism Standing Committee” after finishing their investigations
according to the HEC’s provided terms will submit its report with clear cut
findings and recommendations. The Vice Chancellor will have the discretion to
implement the recommendations after approval through the statutory process.
Plagiarism Penalties for Teachers, Researchers and Staff
Depending upon the seriousness of the offence the committee will advise the
competent authority to take one or a combination of the following disciplinary
actions against the offender:
Major Penalty
In severe cases where most of the paper or key results have been exactly copied
without giving the reference to the original work then a major penalty of;
a) Dismissal from service need to be prescribed along with
b) The offender may be black listed and may not be eligible for employment in
any academic/research organization and
c) The notification of black listed may be publicized in print media or different
websites at the discretion of Vice Chancellor.
Moderate Penalty
In case where some paragraphs including some key results have been copied, a
moderate penalty of a) demotion to next lower grade, b) black listing of the
guilty may be published at the discretion of the Vice Chancellor.
Minor Penalty
If only few paragraphs have been copied from an external source without giving
reference to that work, a minor penalty of a) warning, b) freezing of all research
grants for a specified period, c) promotions/annual increments may be stopped,
d) HEC or the University may debar the offender from sponsorship of research
funding, travel grant, supervision of Ph.D. students, scholarships, fellowship or
any other funded program for a period deemed appropriate by the “Plagiarism
Standing Committee”.
38

39. Plagiarism Penalties for students
In case a student is found guilty of the offence, the “Plagiarism Standing
Committee” depending upon the seriousness of the proven offence will advise
the Vice Chancellor to take anyone or a combination of following disciplinary
action(s):
i. In the case of thesis the responsibility of thesis will be of the student
and not of the supervisor or members of the Supervisory Committee.
ii. The offender may be expelled/rusticated from the University.
iii. The offender relegated to a lower class, given a failure grade, fined
deemed appropriate or warned in writing if it is a minor offence
committed first time.
iv. The degree of the student may be withdrawn if at any time it is
proven that he or she presented plagiarized work in his/her Masters,
M. Phil or PhD dissertation.
v. Any Co-Author listing a paper in his/her resume and applied for a
benefit will be equally responsible for any plagiarism committed.
Size of the Final Project Report
The research reports vary considerably for example a research report based on
qualitative data may require longer data presentation and analysis rather than
research report based on quantitative data. The length of the research project
report shall not be less than 18,000 – 20, 000 words.
Arrangement/ Contents of Final Project Report
The final project report should be submitted in spiral and the sequence /
arrangement of the report is as follow:
Title Page (Appendix – A)
Attestation of authorship (Appendix – C)
Declaration (Student) (Appendix – D)
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Tables
1) Chapter 1 (Introduction)
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background of Study
39

40. 1.3 Statement of the Problem
1.4 Objectives
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Research Hypothesis or Research Question
1.7 Delimitation
2) Chapter 2 (Review of Literature) (Appendix – B)
2.1 Sections based on natural topics or themes
2.2 Similar research studies
2.3 Literature giving the rationale
2.4 Short summary
3) Chapter 3 (Research Methodology)
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Population
3.3 Sampling Technique/Procedures
3.4 Sampling Size
3.5 Research Instrument /Tools
3.6 Data Collection
4) Chapter 4 (Data Analysis and Interpretation)
4.1 Demographic data and return percentages
4.2 Tables summarizing data
4.3 Figures, graphs, and charts pictorially depicting data
4.4 Narrative describing most important findings
5) Chapter 5 (Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations)
5.1 Summary of findings
5.2 Conclusions
5.3 Recommendations
Bibliography (Appendix E & F)
Supplementary Material
Appendices
40

41. TITLE PAGE
Title page must have the research topic, name of the researcher, roll number,
registration number, submitted to, month and year on which s/he submitted the
draft of synopsis and final project report, and address (student) must be written.
See Appendix A.
ABSTRACT
The abstract is the most crucial part of the report because anybody searching for
your research on a database or in a journal will usually read only the abstract.
Therefore, it must summarize your research, results and conclusions in less than
200 words.
Sometimes it is good to think of it as a sample of your research rather than a
review; it should inform the researcher that your article contains the information
they need. There are a few ideas on how to write your abstract but the best
advice is that you look at some journals relevant to your research and try to
format your abstract in a similar way. See appendix G.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It should be brief and must not exceed one page.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
This section and is merely a breakdown of sections and subsections by page
number. For a short and straightforward paper it may not be necessary to
include a contents page. But this is mandatory for a research report.
Provide list of all the chapters and subchapters of your research report. Use of
application software (MS Word) can make this very easy for you and the reader
of the research report. Please give roman numbers to preliminary pages and
chapter 1 would be the page no.1.
41

42. See appendix H.
LIST OF TABLES
The list of tables’ along with page numbers should exactly the same captions as
they appear in the text, so, that the reader of the report can find easily.
LIST OF FIGURES
This list should also use exactly the same captions as they appear in the text, also
mention page numbers.
LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS OR NOMENCLATURE (OPTIONAL)
One and half spacing should be adopted for typing the matter under this
heading. Standard symbols, abbreviations etc should be used.
CHAPTERS
Each chapter should be given an appropriate title, and the chapter number and
chapter name should be in CAPS, Bold with 16 Font. Tables and figures in a
chapter should be placed accordingly.
APPENDICES
Most reports have at least one appendix section to allow you to include data,
figures and calculations without breaking the flow of the main body of the
report. Most researchers reading your report will not be too interested in the
exact details, only the results. The appendix, however, allows somebody
interested in your results to check your research more thoroughly. Appendices
should be numbered e.g. Appendix A, B, and C etc. List of appendices may be
provided after list of figures.
42

43. DRAFTS AND CHECKING
Sometimes, when you think that you have finished your report, it is a good idea
to ask another person to read through it for you and pick out the obvious
mistakes. They can give you input on your research paper format and it is also
very easy to miss your own mistakes so an independent review is useful. After
this process you can finalize your first draft of the report.
GRAMMAR AND SPELLING
Even though you are writing scientific reports, it is essential to the research
paper format that your grammar and spelling are correct and readable. If your
report is poorly written, people will tend to assume that your research is also
poor and you are giving the assessor an easy excuse to give you a lower grade.
Spell-checkers are good for an initial check on your language use but they are not
powerful enough to pick up every mistake. If you are not confident enough
about your language skills to write a good report, "bribe" or pay somebody more
skilled to edit it for you, when you've finished your paper. Most students
studying English or other languages are only too happy to have the chance to
earn a little money on the side.
GRAPHS
Graphs are one of the easiest ways to display your results and findings in an easy
to understand format. Any graphs should take up a full page and be numbered
as diagrams 1, 2 etc. They should be referred to by these descriptions in the body
of the text. Graphs are not essential to the research paper format, but help you
present your main points. Where relevant, graphs should include any error bars
so that anybody reading your report can quickly see the degrees of significance
of your results. If you don't know what an error bar is, don't worry about this.
Graphs are best kept as simple as possible and, in the computer age, should be
drawn with one of the many software programs available.
You should not lose credit for using traditional pen and paper, but most
universities and schools will teach you how to utilize computer spreadsheet
applications and the saving in time and effort is worthwhile.
43

44. FORMAT OF THE PROJECT REPORT
Format and Style
You will be required to abide by the following format and style as specified by
the Department.
♣ Font Times New Roman
♣ Chapter Headings 16Bold CAPS
♣ Headings 14 Bold CAPS
♣ Sub-headings 14 Bold Normal
(Do not italicize or underline the headings and sub-headings)
♣ Text 12
♣ Paper quality offset paper 90 grams
♣ Paper size A4 – 213mm x 275mm
♣ Spacing Double
♣ Paragraphing Indented or justified and double space
between paragraphs
♣ Binding
- Evaluation Copy Spiral binding
- Final Copy Hardbound covered with cloth
- Colour of binding Dark Black or Navy Blue
- Spine To contain student’s name, title of the
Project, level and year
♣ Citation Manual APA (Appendix – E)
Harvard (Appendix – F)
♣ Margins Left 1½” 3.8 cm
Right 1” 2.5 cm
Top 1¼” 3.2 cm
Bottom 1” 2.5 cm
44

45. Appendix - A
TITLE
Font: Times New Roman
Size: TOPIC 24 bold CAPS
STUDENT’S NAME 18 bold CAPS
Name of the Dept. 16 bold
Name of the University 18 bold
Spine 2”
Name Title of the Project report
TITLE OF THE
PROJECT
STUDENT’S NAME
1½” 1”
Institute of Business and Management
UET, Lahore
5 cm Year
blank
space
1”
The Inner title would be the same, plus:
i) Statement of Submission:
Submission in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of MS at the
Institute of Business and Management UET, Lahore
ii) Supervisor’s Name (iii) Month, Year
45

46. Appendix - B
Font: Times New Roman
Size: Chapter Headings 16 bold CAPS
Headings 14 bold CAPS
Sub-headings 14 bold
Text 12
Alignment Justified or Indented
Spacing Double
Paraphrasing Either indent or don’t but consistent
(Do not italicize or underline the headings of sub-headings.)
2”
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 OVERVIEW
It is understood that information needs arise when an
individual finds himself in a problem situation, when he or she
no longer can manage with the knowledge that he or she
possess, (Talja 1992, P. 72). There are a lot of studies on mass
media or mass communication throughout the world done but
a few research studies conducted on ‘news-seeking patterns
throughout the world, and especially in Pakistan.
The present study is significant not only for the newspapers’
industries and readers, but it is also important for educational
point of view.
1”
Appendix - C
Institute of Business and Management,
46

47. University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
ATTESTATION OF AUTHORSHIP
I, Roll No.
Registration No. A student of IB&M
Program in UET, solemnly declare that my Project Report entitled
Is my own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by
another person. This report is not submitted already and shall not be submitted
in future for obtaining a degree from same or another University or Institution. If
it is found to be copied/plagiarized at later stage of any student enrolled in the
same or any other university, I shall be liable to face legal action before Unfair
Mean committee (UMC), as per IB&M,UET/HEC Rules and Regulations, and I
understand that if I am found guilty, my degree will be cancelled.
Signature
Name:
Programme:
Appendix – D
47

48. CERTIFICATE (from supervisor)
The project report entitled “ ”, at
IB&M,UET MS conducted by ____________________________ Roll No.
_______________, Registration No. _________________ Session _________ has
been completed under my guidance and I am satisfied with the quality of
student’s research work.
Supervisor
_________________________
Name
Date: _________________
48

49. Appendix – E
ABSTRACT
The researcher in this thesis intended to study the effects of advertisements on Consumer’s
behaviour and tried to identify the components in the advertisements that affect the
consumer behaviour.
Advertisements are messages that inform us about different things. We daily watch
numerous advertisements of consumer goods, places, services, hotels, books, food, clothes
etc. They provide the path to a company so that it can bring it offering into limelight.
Advertisement is everywhere in our daily life. When we pick newspaper we can see it there,
if we tune into a radio we can hear advertisement there, if we switch on the TV we can watch
the advertisement there as well. If we are on a drive we can notice huge billboards along the
road side. Ads are not just to glitter and glamour; they in fact carry intended messages, which
directly or indirectly work as persuasive communication.
In first chapter titled Introduction of Report shows the basic information about the project
such a background of the study, purpose of study, statement of the problem, research
question and delimitations.
The second chapter titled the Literature Review describes theories, historical background,
categories, functioning and types of advertising, also a brief introduction and history of
Proctor and Gamble (The Organization).
The third chapter includes research methodology, research design, sampling and data
collection.
The fourth chapter includes the data analysis and its interpretation.
The fifth chapter is composed of the findings, conclusions and recommendations.
At the end of the report bibliography and appendices are included.
49

50. A sample Table of Contents is given as under:
Appendix – F
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title i.
Abstract ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Certificate v
Declaration vi
CHAPTTER 1 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 2
1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 2
1.3 HISTORICAL BACK GROUND OF STUDY 2
1.4 CATEGORIES OF ADVERTISING 2
1.4.1 Immediate Action 4
1.4.2 Awareness 8
1.4.3 Image 9
CHAPTER-2 10
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 11
2.2 ADVERTISEMENT 17
2.2.1 Paid Form 20
2.2.2 Non-Personal Presentation 24
2.2.3 Ideas, Goods, and Services 39
2.2.4 An Identified Sponsor 51
CHAPTER – 3 52
1.1 POPULATION 53
1.2 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE 56
1.3 SAMPLE SIZE 58
1.4 PROBLEM FACED 60
1.5 USES OF COMPUTER APPLICATION 75
CHAPTER – 4 76
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETTATION 77
4.1 Demographic Information of Respondents 78
4.1.1 Gender of the Respondents 79
4.1.2 Cross-tabulation of Gender with Age of Respondents 87
4.1.3 Cross-tabulation of Gender with Qualification of 93
Respondents
CHAPTER – 5 94
5.1 FINDINGS 95
5.2 CONCLUSION 99
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 102
Bibliography 105
Appendices 107
Appendix A 108
Appendix B 109
50

51. APA Citation
End Note X1
Books In-Text Example Reference List Example (which reference
type?)
Single author The theory was first propounded in 1993 Comfort, A. (1997). A good age. London: Mitchell Beazley. Book
(Comfort, 1997, p. 58)
OR
Comfort (1997, p. 58) claimed that…
2 authors Madden and Hogan (1997, p.17)…. Madden, R., & Hogan, T. (1997). The definition of Book
OR disability in Australia: Moving towards national
“… to achieve consistency” (Madden consistency. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health
& Hogan, 1997, p. 45). and Welfare.
3, 4 or 5 authors Guerin, Labor, Morgan, Reesman, and Guerin, W. L., Labor, E., Morgan, L., Reesman, J. C., & Book
Willingham (2005, p. 6) found … Willingham, J. R. (2005). A handbook of critical
Cite all authors the first time approaches to literature. New York: Oxford
the reference occurs. University Press.
Guerin et al. (2005, p. 6) found …
In subsequent citations, include only
the surname of the first author
followed by et al. (not italicized and
with a fullstop after “al”) and the year.
6 or more authors (Rodgers et al., 1996, p. 35) Rodgers, P., Smith, K., Williams, D., Conway, L., Book
Robinson, W., Franks, F., et al. (2002). The way
forward for Australian libraries. Perth: Wombat
Press.
No author (Employment the Professional Way, Employment the professional way: A guide to understanding Book
2000) the Australian job search process for
OR professionally qualified migrants. (2000). Carlton,
the book Employment the Professional Victoria: Australian Multicultural Foundation.
Way (2000)
Multiple works by University research (Brown, 1982, 1988) Brown, P. (1982). Corals in the Capricorn group. Book
same author has indicated that… Rockhampton: Central Queensland University.
Brown, P. (1988). The effects of anchor on corals.
Rockhampton: Central Queensland University.
Order chronologically in the reference list.
Multiple works In recent reports (Napier, 1993a, 1993b) Napier, A. (1993a). Fatal storm. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. Book
published in the …
same year by the Napier, A. (1993b). Survival at sea. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
same author Use a/b etc. to differentiate between
works in same year. Order alphabetically by title in the reference list.
Editor (Kastenbaum, 1993, p. 51) Kastenbaum, R. (Ed.). (1993). Encyclopedia of Edited Book
adult development. Phoenix: Oryx Press.
Different Editions (Renton, 2004, p. 51) Renton, N. (2004). Compendium of good writing (3rd ed.). Book
Milton: John Wiley & Sons.
An edition number is placed after the title of the
work - this is not necessary for a first edition.
Encyclopedia or The new Grove dictionary of music and Sadie, S. (Ed.). (1980). The new Grove dictionary of Edited Book
Dictionary musicians (1980, p.85) defined it as… th
music and musicians (6 ed., Vols. 1-20).
London: Macmillan.
Article or chapter As discussed by Blaxter (1976)… Blaxter, M. (1976). Social class and health inequalities. In C. Book Section
in a book Carter & J. Peel (Eds.), Equalities and
inequalities in health (pp. 120-135). London:
Academic Press.
51

52. Article or chapter (“Solving the Y2K Problem,” 1997) Solving the Y2K problem. (1997). In D. Bowd (Ed.), Book Section
in a book – Technology today and tomorrow (p. 27). New York:
no author Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Brochure (Research and Training Centre, 1993, p. Research and Training Centre on Independent Living. (1993). Book
2) Guidelines for reporting and writing about
th (put Author in
people with disabilities (4 ed.) [Brochure].
Publisher)
Melbourne: Author.
You will need to
The word ‘Author’ is used as the publisher when
manually type
the author and publisher are the same.
[Brochure] after the
title.
E-book (Pettinger, 2002, p. 45) Pettinger, R. (2002). Global organizations. Oxford: Electronic Book
Capstone
Publishing. Retrieved September 28, 2004, (put September 28, 2004 in the
from Date Accessed field, NetLibrary
NetLibrary database. in Name of Database.)
Thesis (Jones, 1998, p. 89) Jones, F. (1998). The mechanism of Bayer residue Thesis
flocculation. PhD Thesis. Curtin University
of Technology. Retrieved December 21, (put PhD Thesis in Thesis
2005, from Curtin University of Technology Type, December 21, 2005 in
Digital Theses. Access Date, Curtin
University of Technology
Digital Theses in URL.)
Conference (Cutler, Frolich, & Hanrahan, Cutler, L. D., Frolich, B., & Hanrahan, P. (1997, Conference Proceeding
Proceeding 1997) January 16). Two-handed direct manipulation
OR on the responsive workbench. Paper presented (put 1997, January 16 in
As discussed by Cutler, Frolich at the 1997 Symposium on Interactive 3D Year of Conference, Two-
and Graphics, Stanford, CA. Retrieved June 12, handed direct manipulation
Hanrahan (1997) 2000, from ProQuest 5000 database. on the responsive
workbench in Title, 1997
Symposium on Interactive
3D Graphics in Conference
Name, Stanford, CA in
Conference Location, June
12, 2000 in Access Date,
ProQuest 5000 in Name of
Database.)
Image in a book The poster “The 3 dark years” Sexton, M. (2005). The great crash: The short life Book
(Sexton, and sudden death of the Whitlam
2005, p. 184) government. Melbourne: Scribe
Publications.
End Note X1 (which reference
Print Journals In-Text Example Reference List Example
type?)
Article As mentioned by Wharton Wharton, N. (1996). Health and safety in Journal Article
(1996)… outdoor activity centres. Journal of
OR Adventure Education and Outdoor
“… when abseiling” (Wharton, Leadership, 12(4), 8-9.
1996, p.
Article – no author 8). a growing
It’s Anorexia nervosa. (1969). British Medical Journal, Journal Article
problem in the U.K. 1, 529-530.
(“Anorexia Nervosa,”
1969)…
Newspaper article (Towers, 2000) Towers, K. (2000, January 18). Doctor not at fault: Coroner. Newspaper Article
The Australian, p. 3.
Newspaper article – (“Rate Rise,” 2005) Rate rise scares new home buyers away. (2005, April 29). Newspaper Article
no author Sydney Morning Herald, p. 35.
52

53. Press release (Watersmith, 2000) Watersmith, C. (2000, March 1). BHP enters new era, Report
[Press release]. Melbourne: BHP Limited.
(put 2000, March 1 in
the Year field, Press
release in Report
Number, BHP
Limited in
Institution.)
Electronic End Note X1 (which
In-Text Example Reference List Example
Journals reference type?)
Full text from an (Madden, 2002) Madden, G. (2002). Internet economics and policy: an Journal Article
electronic database OR Australian perspective. Economic Record, 78,
As Madden (2002) states… 343-58. Retrieved October 16, 2002, from
ABI/INFORM Global database.
Full text from an The Internet has had a huge Internet economics and policy: an Australian perspective. Journal Article
electronic database impact on (2002). Economic Record, 78, 343-58. Retrieved
– no author the Australian economy (“Internet October 16, 2002, from ABI/INFORM Global
Economics”, 2002)… database.
Full text newspaper, (“WA Packed,” 2004) WA packed with overseas appeal. (2004, November 12). Newspaper Article
newswire or The West Australian, p. 47. Retrieved November 13, 2004, (put November 13, 2004
magazine from from Factiva database. in the Access Date field,
an electronic Factiva in Name of
database – no Database.)
author
Full text from (Sopensky, 2002) Sopensky, E. (2002). Ice rink becomes hot business. Austin Electronic Article
Internet Business Journal. Retrieved October 16, 2002,
from (put October 16,
http://www.bizjournals.com/austin/stories/2002/1 2002 in the Date
0/14/ smallb1.html Accessed field,
http://www.bizjour
nals.com/austin/
stories/2002/10/14/
smallb1.html in
Database.)
Article from (Davidhizar & Dowd, Davidhizar, R., & Dowd, S. B. (1997). The art of giving an Journal Article
Curtin 1997) effective presentation. Health Care Supervisor, 15(3),
E-Reserve 25-31. Retrieved October 16, 2002, from Curtin (put October 16, 2002 in the Access
University of Technology Library E-Reserve. Date field, Curtin University of
Technology Library E-Reserve in
Type of Article.)
Cochrane (Bunn, Byrne & Kendall, Bunn, F., Byrne, G., & Kendall, S. (2004, July 19). Journal Article
Review 2004) Telephone consultation and triage: Effects on health
care use and patient satisfaction. Cochrane Database (put 2004, July 19 in the Year field,
of Systematic Reviews, 2004(3), Article CD004180. Cochrane Database of Systematic
Retrieved February 11, 2005, from The Cochrane Reviews in Journal, Article
Library Database. CD004180 in Pages.)
* This example was provided by APA Journals in
September2006.
World Wide
In-Text Example Reference List Example End Note X1 (which reference type?)
Web
Document on “It’s essential you learn Dawson, J., Smith, L., Deubert, K., & Grey-Smith, S. Web Page
WWW how to reference” (2002). ‘S’
(Dawson, Smith, Deubert Trek 6: Referencing, not plagiarism. (use Access Date & URL
& Grey-Smith, Retrieved October 31, 2002, from fields for retrieved
2002). http://studytrekk.lis.curtin.edu.au/ statement)
53