Qualitative Data collection

1. Qualitative Data Collection
Dr. Susheewa Wichaikull, RN, Ph.D.

2. WHAT IS THE PROCESS OF QUALTATIVE DATA
CLLECTION?
1- Identify the participants and sites.
2- Gain access i.e. permission.
3- Define the type of data to collect.
4- Develop data collection forms i.e.
observational checklist.
5- Administer the process in an ethical
manner.

3. Populations and site
How to recruit participant and site?
- Random sampling Vs Purposive sampling

4. Random “Quantitative” Purposeful “Qualitative”
sampling sampling
Select people or sites who can best
Select representative individuals
help us understand our phenomenon
To generalize from sample to the
To develop a detailed understanding
population
To make “claims” about the population That might provide useful information.
That might help people learn about the
To build/test “theories” that explain the phenomenon.
population. That might give voice to silenced people.

5. Purposive Sampling
• Researchers intend to select individuals and sites
based upon the limitation in order to learn and
understand the central phenomenon.

6. Types of Purposive Sampling
o Maximal Variation Sampling
o Extreme Case Sampling
o Typical Sampling
o Theory or Concept Sampling
o Homogeneous Sampling
o Critical Sampling
o Opportunistic Sampling
o Snowball Sampling
o Confirming and Disconfirming Sampling

7. Maximal Variation Sampling:
A purposive sampling strategy in which
the researcher samples cases or
individuals that differ on some
characteristic or trait.
e.g. different age groups.

8. Extreme Case Sampling
Is a form of purposive sampling in which
the study an outlier case or one that
displays extreme characteristics.
-Choose extreme cases after knowing the
typical or average case-e.g., outstanding
successes, crisis events

9. Typical Sampling
A form of a purposive sampling in
which the researcher studies a
person or site that is “typical” to
those unfamiliar with the situation.

10. Theory or Concept Sampling
A purposive sampling strategy in which the
researcher samples individuals or sites
because they can help the researcher
generate or discover a theory or specific
concepts within the theory.

11. Homogeneous Sampling
The researcher purposefully samples
individuals or sites based on
membership in a subgroup that has
defining characteristics.

12. Critical Sampling
Identify the case that can illustrate
some phenomenon dramatically.

13. Opportunistic Sampling
Purposive sampling undertaken after
the research begins, to take
advantage of unfolding events that
will help answer research questions.

14. Snowball Sampling
A form of purposive sampling that
typically proceeds after a study
begins and occurs when the
researcher asks participants to
recommend other individuals to
study.

15. Confirming and Disconfirming
Sampling
A purposive strategy used during a
study to follow up on specific cases
to test or explore further specific
findings.

16. A key informant
A key informant is
• a person who has unique skills or professional
background related to the issue being studied.
• A person who is knowledgeable about the
project participants, or has access to other
information of interest to the evaluator.
• A person who has a way of communicating
that represents the essence of what the
participants say and do.

17. Advantages and disadvantages
of using key informants
• Advantages
•Information concerning causes, reasons, andbest
approaches from an "insider" point of view
•Advice/feedback increases credibility of study
•Pipeline to pivotal groups
•May have side benefit to solidify relationships
between evaluators, clients, participants, and
other stakeholders

18. Disadvantages
• Time required to select and get commitment
may be substantial
• Relationship between evaluator and informants
may influence type of data obtained
• Informants may interject own biases and
impressions
• May result in disagreements among individuals
leading to frustration/ conflicts

19. HOW TO GAIN ACCESS TO THE SITES?
Gaining access to the site or individual(s) in
qualitative inquiry involves obtaining
permission at different levels, such as:
The organisation
The site
The individuals
The campus institutional review boards

20. WHAT INFORMATION ARE INVOLVED
Observations, reflective journal, field note
Interviews , Tape or video record
Documents, newspaper, poem, diary
Photographs
Audiovisual materials, songs

21. Categories of Data Collection
Data collection strategy
Method
Attributes Challenges
Data Collected directly in words from people
Interviews: one-to-one Reveal information about the Interviews are a time-
question-and-answer sessions worldview of a single individual. consuming form of data
where the researcher may This is a flexible strategy that collection. To gather data
use a variety of techniques. can be massaged during data from one person requires
Interviews average 30-45 collection as needed to heighten preparation, the time of the
minutes per person results. interview, and the time of
transcription.
Focus groups: group More time effective than The group dynamics may
Interviews, using the same interviews but with slightly less interfere with complete or
variety of techniques and flexibility. The group process accurate data.
talking approximately the may encourage results from shy
same length of time as or hesitant people when the
interviews. group brings up topic with
which they agree.

22. Considerations in conducting in-depth
interviews and focus groups
Factors to consider in determining the setting
for interviews (both individual and group)
include the following:
• Select a setting that provides privacy for
participants.
• Select a location where there are no
distractions and it is easy to hear respondents
speak.

23. • Select a comfortable location.
• Select a nonthreatening environment.
• Select a location that is easily accessible
for respondents.
• Select a facility equipped for audio or
video recording.

24. • Stop telephone or visitor interruptions to
respondents interviewed in their office or
homes.
• Provide seating arrangements that encourage
involvement and interaction.

25. Advantages and disadvantages
of in-depth interviews
Advantages
•Usually yield richest data, details, new insights
•Permit face-to-face contact with respondents
•Provide opportunity to explore topics in depth
•Afford ability to experience the affective as well as
cognitive aspects of responses
•Allow interviewer to explain or help clarify questions,
increasing the likelihood of useful responses
•Allow interviewer to be flexible in administering
interview to particular individuals or circumstances

26. Disadvantages
• Expensive and time-consuming
• Need well-qualified, highly trained interviewers
• Interviewee may distort information through
recall error, selective perceptions, desire to
please interviewer
• Flexibility can result in inconsistencies across
interviews
• Volume of information too large; may be difficult
to transcribe and reduce data

27. Categories of Data Collection Method
Data collection strategy Attributes Challenges
Data Collected once or throughout a process of change
Reflective Journals: Subjective account of the event Similar to interviews,
Handwritten of verbal from the point of view of the reflective journals display
account of an event, or group writer, who may be the the worldview of single
of events, overtime. researcher or a subject of a individuals. They also
These often unveil how research. Can be collected once frequently require
writers subscribe meaning to or throughout a process of transcription.
their topics. change
Field notes: written May follow a prescribed format Somewhat more objective
explanations or data taken, or be open-ended. than reflective data
often by multiple observers at although still subject to the
a single event, capturing biases of the writer.
interactions of interest to the
larger topic under study.

28. Reflective Journal
• Reflective journal is a series of 'writings' in
response to life experiences and events that
may also involves reflections on what took
place, express emotions, understandings and
conclusions, lessons learned or action plans.
Often called a “Journal Entry”

29. The sample of reflective journal

30. Fieldnotes
Field notes refer to transcribed notes or the
written account derived from data
collected during observations and interviews.

31. Format
There is no one format for field notes. Three
possible formats are:
• Save content part of field notes and reflective
part of field notes in separate files.
• Use two columns. The column on the right
contains the content portion of field notes,
with reflective comments relating to particular
parts of the content part, written in the left
column.

32. • Use wide left margin. Body of file contains
content part, with the observer's comments
written in parentheses and indented under
related paragraphs.

33. Sample

35. Categories of Data Collection Method
Data collection strategy Attributes Challenges
Data Collected during the event(s) being studies
Anecdotal evidence and logs: May follow a prescribed format or be Somewhat more
data taken from people often open-ended. May be more objective objective than
outside the research team about the topic of study, since not reflective data
that report the facts of the constrained by the biases of the although still subject
interactions as understood by research team’s discussions of the to the biases of the
the writer. topic under study. writer.
Observations: stylized note Are often collected over a period of Accuracy may be
taking about predetermined time. Can be a collected by a variety constrained by the
portions of an event or group of people, thereby increasing the point of view of the
of events under study, possibility of reliable results. Accuracy person recording the
generally taken by more than may be helped by voice or video data.
one observer. Observations recording prior, with multiple people
often tally the number of taking part in analysis.
times an event takes place.
Student work: Can also be collected over time and May be hard to
with the intention of showing growth. interpret accurately.

36. • Becker (1958) described the role of
the participant observer as the
gatherer of data by participating in
the daily life of the group or
organisation.

37. Observational roles
A participant observer: is an observational
role adopted by researchers when they
take part in activities (the same as their
participants) in the setting they observe.

38. Observational roles
A nonparticipant observer: is an
researcher who visit a site and
records notes without becoming
involved in the activities of the
participants.

39. Observational roles
• A changing observational role: is one
where researchers adapt their role to
the situation.

40. Observations
The process of gathering open-ended,
firsthand information by observing
people and places at a research site.

41. Advantages :
opportunity to record information as it occurs in a
setting,
1- To study actual behavior and Permit evaluator to enter into and
understand situation/context.
2- Provide direct information about behavior of individuals and
groups
3- To study individuals who have difficulty verbalizing their ideas.
4. Provide good opportunities for identifying unanticipated
outcomes
5- Exist in natural, unstructured, and flexible setting

42. Disadvantages:
Disadvantages
1- Researcher will be limited to those sites and
situations where he/she can gain access.
2- Researcher may have difficulty develop
rapport with individuals there.
3- Culture shock may occur
4- Hawthorne effect
5-Expensive and time consuming
6- Need well-qualified, highly trained observers
7-Selective perception of observer may distort
data

43. Interviews
Occur when researchers ask one or
more participants (groups), open-
ended questions and record their
answers.

44. Types of interviews
Can be described into two ways : base
upon participants and questions
1- one-on-one interviews: is a data-collection
process in which the researcher asks
questions to and records answers from only
one participant in the study at a time.

45. 2- focus group interviews: the process of
collecting data through interviews with a
group of people, typically four to six.

46. 3- telephone interviews: is the process
of gathering data using the telephone
and asking a small number of general
questions.

47. 4- electronic e-mail interviews: consist
of collecting open-ended data through
interviews with individuals using
computer and the internet to do so.

48. Type of interview
• Formal interview or structure
• Informal interview or unstructured interview
• Semi-structure interview
• In-depth interviews focus on the depth detail
of data.

49. Getting research participants
to talk
“Personal relations of trust are the basic ingredient for
a research project which intends the collection of
truthful information, data which retain the integrity
of the actor’s perspective and social context. Such
relations are essential for any project which seeks to
penetrate the public fronts of our everyday lives”.
(Johnson 1975: 121)

50. • Rapport are vital to gain trust.
• Gate keeper is helpful person.

51. Transcribe tape record
• Interviewer (or transcriber) listens to the
tapes and writes a verbatim account of
everything that was said.
• Transcription of the raw data includes word-
for-word quotations of the participant’s
responses as well as the interviewer’s
descriptions of participant’s characteristics,
enthusiasm, body language, and overall mood
during the interview.

52. • Notes from the interview can be used to
identify speakers or to recall comments that
are garbled or unclear on the tape.

53. Advantages and disadvantages of
the interview:
Advantages:
1- provide further information when you cannot directly observe
participants.
2- Allow participants to describe detailed information
Disadvantages :
1- Provides only information “filtered” through the views of the
interviewers.
2- interview data may be deceptive and provide the perspective the
interviewee wants the researcher to hear.
3- the presence of the researcher may affect how the interviewee
responds.
4- interviewee responses also may not be articulate, perceptive, or
clear.

54. Conducting interviews:
1- Identify the interviewees.
2- Determine the type of interview you will use.
3- During the interview, audiotape the questions
and responses.
4- Take brief notes during the interview.
5- Locate a quiet, suitable place for conducting
the interview.

55. 6- Obtain the consent from the interviewee to
participate in the study.
7- Have a plan, but be flexible.
8- Use probes to obtain additional information.
9- Be courteous and professional when the
interview is over.

56. Documents
Consist of public and private records that
qualitative researchers obtain about a site
or participants in a study and they can
include newspapers, minutes of meeting,
personal journals, and letters.

57. Documents
Advantages:
1- Being in the language and words of the participants.
2- Ready for analysis without the necessary transcription that is
required observational or interview data.
Disadvantages:
1- Documents are some times difficult to locate and obtain.
2- Information may not be available to the public.
3- Information may be located in distant archives, requiring the
researcher to travel, which take time and can be expensive.
4- The documents may be incomplete, inauthentic, or inaccurate.
5- In personal documents such as diaries or letters, the handwriting may
be hard to read.

58. Two main types of document
• Public records are materials created and kept
for the purpose of "attesting to an event or
providing an accounting" (Lincoln and Guba,
1985)
• Personal documents are first-person accounts
of events and experiences. These "documents
of life" include diaries, portfolios,
photographs, artwork, schedules, scrapbooks,
poetry, letters to the paper, etc.

59. Collecting documents:
1- Identify the type of documents that can provide
useful information to answer your qualitative
research questions.
2- consider both public and private documents as
sources of information of your research.
3- once the documents are located, seek permission to
use them from the appropriate individuals in charge of
the materials.

60. 4- if you ask participants to keep a journal, provide
specific instructions about the procedure.
5- once you have permission to use documents,
examine them for accuracy, completeness, and
usefulness in answering the research questions in your
study.
6- record information from the documents.

61. Audiovisual materials
Consist of images or sounds that
researchers collect to help them
understand the central phenomenon
under study.

62. The advantages and disadvantages of
using visual materials
Advantages:
1- people easily relate to images because they
are so pervasive in our society.
2- Images provide an opportunity for the
participant to share directly their
perceptions of reality.
3- images such as videotapes and films, for
example, provide extensive data about real
life as people visualize it.

63. Disadvantages:
1- They are difficult to analyze because of the
rich information.
2- you as a researcher may influence the data
collected.
3- in selecting the photo album to examine or
requesting that a certain type of drawing be
sketched, you may impose your meaning of
the phenomenon on participants, rather than
obtain the participants’ views.

64. Steps of collecting
audiovisual :materials
1- determine what visual material can provide
information to answer research questions and how
that material might augment existing forms of data,
such as interviews and observations.
2- identify the visual materials available and
obtain permission to use it.

65. 3- check the accuracy and authenticity of
the visual materials if you do not record it
yourself.
4- collect the data and organize it.

66. How do you record data?
For observations and interviews,
qualitative researchers use specially
designed protocols.

67. Data recording protocols:
Are forms designed and used by qualitative
research to record information during
observations and interviews.

68. Interview protocol
Is a form designed by the researcher that
contains instructions for the process of
the interview, the questions to be asked,
and space to take notes of responses
from the interviewee.

69. Development and design of an
interview protocol
1- It contains a header to record essential
information about the interview, statements
about the purpose of the study a reminder that
participants need to sign the consent form, and
suggestion to make preliminary test of the
recording equipment.

70. 2- following this header are five brief open-
ended questions that allow participants
maximum flexibility for responding to the
questions.
3- the core questions, 2 through 4, address major
research in the study.

71. Observational protocol
Is a form designed by the researcher
before data collection that is used
for taking fieldnotes during an
observation

72. Further Reading
Denzin, N.K., and Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fetterman, D.M. (1989). Ethnography: Step by Step. Applied Social Research Methods Series, Vol. 17. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
Guba, E.G., and Lincoln, Y.S. (1981). Effective Evaluation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Krueger, R.A. (1988). Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
LeCompte, M.D., Millroy, W.L., and Preissle, J. (Eds.). (1992). The Handbook of Qualitative Research in Education.
San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Lincoln, Y.S., and Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Lofland, J., and Lofland, L.H. (1995). Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis, 3rd
Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Merton, R.K., Fiske, M., and Kendall, P.L. (1990). The Focused Interview: A Manual of Problems and Procedures, 2nd
Ed. New York: The Free Press.
Miles, M.B., and Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Morse, J.M. (Ed.). (1994). Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Patton, M.Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, 2nd Ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Schatzman, L., and Strauss, A.L. (1973). Field Research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Seidman, I.E. (1991). Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and Social
Sciences. New York: Teachers College Press.