2. Accounting is the art of recording , classifying
and summarizing in a significant manner, and
in terms of money , transactions and events
which are , in part at least , of financial
character and interpreting the results thereof.
3. Nature and scope of accounting was explained
in 1961 by the American institute of certified
public accountants (AICPA) in the following
definition which is also known as traditional
5. While accounting is many thing to many
people, real nature of accounting is essentially
described as :
An intellectual discipline
A profession
A social force
A tool of social welfare
An aid or help to resource
6. BOOK KEEPING
The process of identifying or
recognizing the business
transactions
Expression the value of
transaction in money terms
Recording of business
transaction in books of
original entry and
Classifying or grouping
business transactions into
proper heading and posting
them in the ledger
ACCOUNTING
Accounting is concerned not
only with the recording of
business transactions but also
Summarizing of classified
transaction in the form of
profit and loss account and
balance sheet
Analyzing and interpreting
the business transactions
Communicating the results to
the ultimate users of
accounting information.
7. BOOK KEEPING
Book-keeping is the
primary or first stage of
maintaining the book of
account
The main objectives the
book-keeping is to
maintain records of
business transactions a
systematic manner
ACCOUNTING
Accounting is secondary or
second stage of maintaining
the book of account in fact
accounting begins where
book-keeping ends.
The objectives of accounting
is to find out the profit or loss
and financial position of the
enterprise and communicate
the same to users of
accounting information
8. Maintaining proper records of business transactions
Ascertaining or knowing the profit or loss of the
business
Ascertaining the sources of the item of revenue and
expenses
Ascertaining of the financial position of the business
Ascertaining the cash flow position
Communicating the financial information of various
groups
Meeting legal requirements
Controlling the performance of the business
Ascertaining the position of debtors and creditors
Facilitating research in business operations
9. Maintaining systematic records
Communicating the financial results
Meeting legal needs
Protecting business assets
Accounting assists the management in
the task
Fixing responsibility
10. Maintenance of records rather than memory
Preparation of financial statements
Comparison of result
Assistance to management
As legal evidence
Helps in taxation matter
Ascertainment of value of business
Raising loans
Control over assets or properties
Prevention of errors and frauds
Communication to external users
11. No recording of non-monetary transactions
No information about the present value of
business
Use of estimates or personal judgement
Window dressing
Unrealistic accounting information
Accounting information is not natural or
unbiased
Lack of consistency
Disclosure of only material items
Historical information only
12. Financial accounting
Management accounting
Cost accounting
Tax accounting
Social accounting
Human resources accounting
National accounting
Green accounting
Creative accounting
Forensic accounting
13. Cash basis of accounting : credit transactions
are not considered at all including adjustments
for outstanding expenses or accrued income
items
14. This basis is simple to use and does not
require technical knowledge of accountancy
There is no scope for estimation or personal
judgements because cash transactions are
recorded only when actual cash is received
or paid
This basis is suitable for business firms
having most of the transactions in cash
15. Cash basis does not give a true and fair view
of profit or loss
There is no scope of matching principle
There is enough possibility of manipulating
As capital and revenue items are treated at
par there is no consistency in the profit or
loss figure of different accounting periods
Cash basis of accounting is not recoganised
by the companies act
16. Under accrual basis of accounting , only
revenue items are taken into account for
income determination and capital expenditure
are ignored. Income is recognized when it is
earned and not when the money is actually
received later on .
17. It is based on all business transactions of the year in
respect of income and expense items and not simply
relating to cash transactions
This basis of accounting can be used in all types of
business enterprises
It is more suitable for the application of matching
principle
It is more scientific and rational basis of accounting
There is a consistency in the computation of profit or
loss of different years
It is recognized by the companies act
18. Primarily there are two systems of accounting which are used as a
basis for recording day – to – day business transactions in a
systematic manner they are :single entry system and double entry
system
Single entry system: also known as accounts from incomplete
records this system ignores the two – fold or dual aspect of
recording the transactions
(a) Pure single entry, in which only personal accounts are
maintained with the result that no information is available in
respect of cash and bank balances, sales and purchases etc. In
view of its failure to provide even the basic information regarding
cash etc., this method exists only on paper and has no practical
application ;
(b) Simple single entry, in which only : (1)personal accounts and
(2)cash book are maintained
(c) Quasi single entry is a system in which (1)personal accounts (2)
cash book (3) some subsidiary books are maintained
19. Double entry: under this system, all
transactions relating to persons , goods
services, cash or credit are recorded in a
scientific manner taking into consideration
their two –fold or double effects.
Indian system : system of book keeping which
is followed throughout the country for a long
time
20. Accounting principles are uniform set of rules and
guidelines for any accountant to record the
business transactions and prepare the financial
statements , namely : the income statement , the
balance sheet and the cash flow statement.
Accounting principles must satisfy the following
conditions , namely :
(1) They must be real assumptions like money concept
or entity concept
(2) they must be simple and understandable
(3) they must be followed consistently
(4) they should be able to provide useful information
to the users.
21. (1) To ensure uniformity
(2) simple guidelines
(3) Not final statements
(4) The general acceptance of accountancy principles
depends upon how well they meet the three criteria
or conditions of (a) relevance ; (b) objectivity and (c)
feasibility.
22. Accounting standards may be defined as written
policy documents issued by expert accounting
body or by government or its regulatory body
covering such aspects as recognition of events
, measurements , presentation and disclosure of
accounting transactions and events in the
financial statements , namely : balance sheet and
profit and loss account.
Accounting standards may also be termed as
codified forms of generally accepted accounting
principles
23. The accounting standards primarily deal with the following
issues :
(a) Recognition or identification of events and transactions in
the financial statements
(b) Measurements of these transactions and events in terms of
money
(c) Presentation of these transactions and events in the
financial statements in a manner that is meaningful and
understandable to the users of accounting information
(d) The disclosure requirements to unable the public in general
and creditors , owners and potential or future investors in
particular to know what is inside the financial statements .
24. Accounting standards prescribe a model code or yardstick or
benchmark of accounting policies and practices for guidance
of the accountants
Accounting standards eliminate or remove the effect of
several or various accounting policies and practices so that
financial statement of different firms become comparable
Accounting standards provides the most suitable accounting
method to solve one or more accounting problems
Accounting standards clearly communicate to the users of
the financial information the basis on which financial
statements have been prepared
Accounting standards limit the scope of discretion by the
accountants in presenting financial information through
profit and loss account and balance sheet
25. CONCEPTS
Concept are in the nature of
general statement like entity
concept etc and do not
provide solutions to specific
problems
Concept may allow
alternative treatments for the
same items
They are unwritten general
statements about the rules or
guidelines for recording
business transactions
They do not have legal status
STANDARDS
Accounting standards will aim at
specific solution to specific
issues such as inventory
valuation , revenue recognition
etc
Accounting standards on
valuation of fixed assets and
inventory valuation may limit
the number of method of
valuation of these items
They are written or codified
statements issued by accountant
specifying uniform rules
They are legally recognized by
government
26. We can classify the standards into following
categories:
(a) Policy standards which deals with simple
concepts and conventions
(b) Standards whish deal with the format of financial
statements as prescribed in companies
act, insurance companies act , banking companies
act and so on
(c) Standards which deals with the measurement of
financial events
27. (a)Easy intra-firm and inter-firm comparability
(b) Reliability and credibility
(c)True and fair view of financial position
(d) Improve the quality of financial reporting
(e) Reduction in alternative accounting practices
(f) Efficiency of management
(g)Value of accounting information
(h)Useful to accountants and auditors
(i) Reduction of manipulation and frauds
(j) Resolving conflict of financial interest
28. AS 1 Disclosure of Accounting Policies
AS 2 Valuation of Inventories
AS 3 Cash Flow Statements
AS 4 Contingencies and Events Occurring after the Balance Sheet Date
AS 5 Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Prior Period Items and Changes in
Accounting Policies
AS 6 DepreciationAccounting
AS 7 Construction Contracts (revised 2002)
AS 8 Accounting for Research and Development (withdrawn pursua
the issuance of AS 26)
AS 9 Revenue Recognition
AS 10 Accounting for Fixed Assets
AS 11 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates (revised 2003)
AS 12 Accounting for Government Grants
AS 13 Accounting for Investments
AS 14 Accounting for Amalgamations
AS 15 Accounting for Retirement Benefits in the Financial Statements of
Employers
29. AS 16 BorrowingCosts
AS 17 Segment Reporting
AS 18 Related Party Disclosures
AS 19 Leases
AS 20 Earnings Per Share
AS 21 Consolidated Financial Statements
AS 22 Accounting forTaxes on Income
AS 23 Accounting for Investments in Associates in Consolidated financial
statements
AS 24 DiscontinuingOperations
AS 25 Interim Financial Reporting
AS 26 IntangibleAssets
AS 27 Financial Reporting of Interests in JointVentures
AS 28 Impairment of Assets
AS 29 Provisions,Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets
AS-30 Financial instruments: Recognition and measurement and limited
revision to AS-2,AS-11,AS-21,AS-23,AS-26.AS-27,AS-28.
AS-31 Financial instrument – presentation
AS-32 Financial instrument – disclosure