Thesis 2014 lumbasumba ethnic art centre @ dhankuta suman limbu

Thesis 2014
Ethnic art centre @ Dhankuta
By
SUMAN LIMBU
066/B.ARCH./22
Submitted
in partial fulfillment of
the Requirement for the
Degree of Bachelor of Architecture
In the Department of Architecture
Tribhuvan University
Institute of Engineering
Himalaya College of Engineering
Chyasal
November, 2014
Kathmandu, Nepal

TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
HIMALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LUMBASUMBA ETHNIC ART CENTRE
By
SUMAN LIMBU
066 / B.ARCH / 22
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE
DEPARMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
LALITPUR, NEPAL
November, 2014

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this thesis entitled “lumbasumba Ethnic Art Centre”, a
complex of museum, cultural performance and training submitted by Mr. Suman Limbu
has been examined and it has been declared successful for the partial fulfillment of the
academic requirement towards the completion of the Degree of Bachelor of Architecture.
………………………………
Ar. Sirish Bhatt
(Thesis Supervisor)
Date: ………………………...

DECLARATION
I declare that this dissertation has not been previously accepted in substance for
any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. I state
that this dissertation is the result of my own independent investigation/ work, except
where otherwise stated. I hereby give consent for my dissertation, if accepted, to be
available for photocopying and understand that any reference to or quotation from my
thesis will receive an acknowledgement.
………………….
Suman Limbu
066/B.ARCH/22
November, 2014

Abstract
“A people without the knowledge of
their past history, origin and culture
is like a tree without roots”
Marcus Garvey
I believe in what Gary Locke States
“Ethnic diversity adds richness to a
society”. I love the tone of my native
language that sounds musical bits
from ethnic instruments. The irony is
that i lack both the skills in my own
ethic language and ethnic music but I
am more familiar with western music
and even practice western
instruments. While growing up in
Dhankuta i never got the
opportunities to learn any form of
ethnic art and i am quite certain that
such opportunities still do not exist.
However, i am not the only one with
such experience. I grew up in
Dhankuta bazaar with native
Athpahariya community (one of the
sub groups of Kirati community).
The younger generation knows very
little about their own culture and
history.
“The loss of culture of indigenous
groups has been central to cultural
anthropologists because it represents
the irreversible loss of humanity’s
heritage and diversity.”
Wade Davis
We’re losing one of the things that
count the most: our identity, the
uniqueness in us, which makes us
special and allows us to stand out
from the crowd. They say that one
has to be affiliated to some culture or
else one is lost no matter how good
or bad it is.
“Cultural values are, in themselves,
neutral as well as universal, and so
much depends on how individuals or
ethnic groups use them. Values are
influenced by so many factors such
as geography, climate, religion, the
economy and technology.”
F. Sionil Jose
Various forms of traditional tangible
and intangible cultures such as
festivals, language, cultural dance
and music have been neglected,
forgotten and in many cases even
disappeared due to nationalization
and globalization. Hence, it is my
hope that through the various
activities in the proposed Ethnic Art
Centre in Dhankuta, the unique
ethnic arts and culture of this region
will not only be safe guarded but
also be passed on to the next
generation.

Acknowledgements
During my thesis, a number of people were there, who stood by me and supported me
with all the assistance they could grand. Their suggestions and comments for my work
were very appreciable and effective throughout. For this, I would like to thank a lot of
people, whose support and suggestions has made this project reach the desired goal.
Department of Architecture, Himalaya College of Engineering has made it possible
for me to complete this thesis work and thereby graduate as an architect, so I am grateful
to the department and all the staffs and teachers of the department.
I would also like to thank Ar. Sirish Bhatt (Thesis Supervisor) for believing in my
project and supervising the thesis.
Specially thanks goes to Ar. Jayandra Sunuwar for showing the way and helping my
problems.
Ar. Umesh Dhimal (Thesis Coordinator) has been really a remarkable teacher over the
years and I have a huge respect for him. His approval and suggestions was the main
success behind the report.
Special thanks also go out to
Department Lecturers:
Ar. Bijay lal Singh
Ar. Archana Khatiwada
Ar. Biwek Shrestha
Dhankuta municipality:
Nus Raj Shrestha
Mingma Sherpa
Bhimsen Shrestha
Suman Limbu
066/B.Arch/22

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LUMBASUMBA: Ethnic Art Centre @ Dhankuta Suman Limbu
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................5
1.1. Background...............................................................................................................................6
1.2. Context......................................................................................................................................7
1.3. Introduction to project...............................................................................................................8
1.4. Object ives ................................................................................................................................9
1.5. Beneficiaries .............................................................................................................................9
1.6. Justification.............................................................................................................................10
1.7. Scope and limitation................................................................................................................11
1.8. Method....................................................................................................................................11
1.9. Output envisaged.....................................................................................................................11
2. LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................12
2.1. Ethnic groups ..........................................................................................................................13
2.2. Ethinic groups in world...........................................................................................................15
2.3. Ethnic groups in Nepal............................................................................................................15
2.4. Ethnic group in EDR...............................................................................................................18
2.5. Major Ethnic groups: close study............................................................................................23
2.6. Annual festival calander of ethnic groups...............................................................................35
3. THEORY ...........................................................................................36
3.1. Critical Regionalism ................................................................................................................37
2.7. Urban public space..................................................................................................................39
4. STANDARDS ...................................................................................40
4.1. Museum...................................................................................................................................41
4.2. Cultural performance ..............................................................................................................48
4.3. Library.....................................................................................................................................51
4.4. Office room.............................................................................................................................51
4.5. Training class..........................................................................................................................52
4.6. Retails .....................................................................................................................................52
4.7. Restaurant ...............................................................................................................................53

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5. CONTEXT STUDY ..........................................................................54
5.1. Settlement of Dhankuta...........................................................................................................55
5.2. Newar house in Dhankuta Bazaar...........................................................................................58
5.3. Contemporary architecture......................................................................................................60
5.4. Settlement of Athpahariya Village and vernacular architecture .............................................62
5.5. Identity of Dhankuta ...............................................................................................................69
5.6. Activities.................................................................................................................................70
6. CASE STUDY...................................................................................72
6.1. National Museum of the American Indian..............................................................................73
6.2. Tjibao cultural center ..............................................................................................................79
6.3. Kala academy..........................................................................................................................82
6.4. Living Tradition Museum (LTM)...........................................................................................86
6.5. Regional museum, Dhankuta..................................................................................................90
6.6. Nach ghar................................................................................................................................92
6.7. Comparative sheet...................................................................................................................95
7. PROGRAMS FORMULATION.......................................................98
7.1. Activities................................................................................................................................100
8. SITE:................................................................................................101
8.1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................102
8.2. Justification...........................................................................................................................103
8.3. Site description......................................................................................................................103
8.4. SWOT analysis .....................................................................................................................105
8.5. Bylaws: .................................................................................................................................105
8.6. Climatic data .........................................................................................................................106
9. CONCEPT AND DESIGN DEVELOPMENT...............................108
9.1. Intention: philosophical approach.........................................................................................110
9.2. Identification of issues ..........................................................................................................110
9.3. Intended form: Formal approach...........................................................................................111
9.4. Functional approach..............................................................................................................114
10. REFERENCE...................................................................................132

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Ethnic dress, ornaments and instruments ...................................................................... 31
Figure 2 Ethnic dress, ornaments and costumes ........................................................................... 32
Figure 3 Ethnic Dresses ................................................................................................................ 33
Figure 4 space arrangements of museum...................................................................................... 41
Figure 5 Field of vision: height/size and distance ........................................................................ 42
Figure 6 Types of lighting............................................................................................................. 43
Figure 7 Display boxes ................................................................................................................. 44
Figure 8 seating and aisle arrangement........................................................................................ 49
Figure 9 Height of Shelves ........................................................................................................... 51
Figure 10 Hulaktole from madan chowk ..................................................................................... 57
Figure 11 Chuwako Bot................................................................................................................ 57
Figure 12 Pati with Table Tennis at one of square ....................................................................... 57
Figure 13 Newari house with balcony with vessels facing chowk ............................................... 59
Figure 14 Newari house with traditional window......................................................................... 59
Figure 15 staff quarter (left) and amphitheater (right).................................................................. 60
Figure 16 Residence of David Potter............................................................................................ 61
Figure 17 Houses at Bhirgaun....................................................................................................... 62
Figure 18 A tytical Athpahariya houses Dhankuta,...................................................................... 64
Figure 19 Athpahariya house (left), kholma (right)...................................................................... 65
Figure 20 section x-x throughout house and animal shed............................................................. 66
Figure 21 Ground floor Plans ....................................................................................................... 66
Figure 22 section y-y .................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 23 Marga, Dhankuta Municipality 9left), Dhenapang (right) ........................................... 67
Figure 24 Haat Bazaar plan........................................................................................................... 70
Figure 25 Profile section of Haat Bazaar...................................................................................... 71
Figure 26 NMAI building (left), dome(middle) and native huts (right)....................................... 73
Figure 27 floor plans of NMAI..................................................................................................... 78
Figure 28 Kanak huts(left), conceptual sketch(middle) and cultural centre(right)....................... 79
Figure 29 plan and elevation......................................................................................................... 80
Figure 30 Different strategies of ventilation through use of wind................................................ 81
Figure 31 Academy entrance (left) and interior (right) ................................................................ 82
Figure 32 Master plan, Kala Academy ......................................................................................... 85
Figure 33 LTM interiors ............................................................................................................... 86
Figure 34 Floor Plans, LTM ......................................................................................................... 89

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Figure 35 Building front view (left), entrance (middle) and interior (right) ................................ 90
Figure 36 Museum floor plans and sections ................................................................................. 91
Figure 37 Entrance stair (left), Foyer (middle) and stage (right)................................................. 92
Figure 38 Floor plans, Nach Ghar................................................................................................. 94
Figure 39 Location of site in Dhankuta Bazaar .......................................................................... 101
Figure 40 location of site and bazaar (left) and site existing condition (right)........................... 101
Figure 41 site location and surrounding...................................................................................... 101
Figure 42 Dhankuta Hilllock, source: Surendra Athpahariya.................................................... 111
Figure 43 Application in Design................................................................................................. 112
Figure 44 Chuwako bot............................................................................................................... 112
Figure 45 Feature of chowk........................................................................................................ 112
Figure 46 Study of vernacular architetcure................................................................................. 113
Figure 47 Bubble Diagram.......................................................................................................... 115
Figure 48 functional diagram...................................................................................................... 115
Figure 50 Development of form ................................................................................................. 115
Figure 49 Building along line of forces ...................................................................................... 115

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1. INTRODUCTION

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1.1. BACKGROUND
Desire to do something on my own for my birth place, my passion for music, ethnicity
and culture lead me to specify my topic and site. Known as headquarter of Eastern
Development Region, Dhankuta is also a historical and naturally beautiful hill town.
The start of project was never clear but the precious tour to Sikkim gave me an
inspiration that ―I need to something like that in own town‖. I felt that because of similar
geography and people but difference is only lack of development. Choosing the site
become easy when I remember that the most frequent vacant land I use to see since from
my childhood was the most potential space of town. The information about site is further
explained in site analysis.
Every place has a history buried deep inside and such things never come to light unless
the rabbit hole is explored. The mystical land of Nepal is mentioned in lot of ancient text
and history. That makes certain that our nation has long history. One incident is that I live
in Dhankuta with local Athpahariya people but when I left my place I didn‘t find this
ethnic group elsewhere. And the reason is hidden in history of our nation and its
foundation. So my curiosity drive me to dig the history of place and people of specific
region and make it quest for my thesis.
Dhankuta also not only lies centrally of EDR but also of historical land Kirat Pradesh.
This lead to keep name of my project as LUMBASUMBA. (i.e. name of hill starting form
Chatahara, Terai to Mountains). The project will be about the place and people of this
historic region.

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1.2. CONTEXT
Though small landlocked country occupying 0.03 part of total land, Nepal is
exceptionally rich in cultural diversity. Population statistics of 2068 shows 125 ethnic
groups recognized all over the Nation. Among them Rai and Limbu are the major
indigenous ethnic groups who are found in eastern development region (EDR).
The evolution of civilization takes place because of generations of practice and careful
inheritance to successors who accept and continue by developing and adding skill along
with time. Each ethnic community living in different geographical location due to their
own topography, climate and available resources develops their own unique pattern of
lifestyle, culture, tradition, art and belief system. Those tangible and intangible cultural
heritages are the property of our nation which gives us an identity of who we were. These
genuine heritages are under threat and at risk of being obsolete without being
documented.
Art Centres in other countries such as Kala Kendra by designed by Charles Corea
specially aims to promote traditional art through performance hall, school and galleries
but does not include hands-on and training activities. The Indian Museum of Washington
DC share same typology goal and programs but it does not have performance hall and
training activities. There are no any exact cases in national level to present exact cases.
In our context tangible heritage are displayed in museum which are never engaging and
no specific performing art center exist which is built especially to serve ethnic art. But the
effort is not less and the programs are being conducted is each festivals and holidays. For
small scale programs venues such as local public halls are used whereas large scale
gatherings during festivals take place in Tudikhel. Till now centers to provide trainings
on various forms of ethnic art is not recognized except occasional trainings done by ethic
community at local level.

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1.3. INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT
Ethnic art centre can be best defined as a centre that aims to save our traditional culture
by effort of passing it down to the younger generation for continuation. It is a complex
consisting of an ethnographic museum, facilities for cultural performance and training
centre various forms of ethnic art. Training centre here means a place to learn music and
dance of ethnic groups to prevent it from being lost in the future.
Ethnic art centre can be distinguished from an art centre and cultural centre because of
its regional representation and small scale of the project specific to ethnicity. It promotes
local and regional folk and ethnicity but not universal, classical and global art and
culture as an art centre.
Art can be defined as making of objects that are beautiful or that express feelings. It is
also defined as the expression of human creative talent in a form of performing art like
music, drama, dance, magic, and visual art like architecture, paintings, sculpture, print
making, photography and literature. Ethnicity or ethnic group is a social group of people
who identify with each other based on common ancestral, cultural, social, or national
experience. Ethnic art can be understood as the creativity and skill in the form of art
which is evolved and transferred from generation to generation of certain ethnic
community. An art center is distinct from an art gallery or art museum. An art center is a
functional community center with a specific to encourage arts practice and to provide
facilities such as theatre space, gallery space, and venues for musical performance,
workshop areas, educational facilities, technical equipment, etc. An Ethnic art center is
specially created to save, promote and provide continuity to art and culture of a certain
ethnic community. It keeps/store, display, inform, perform and train people about the
ethnic art. An ethnic art center not only maintain and display all forms of ethnic art but
also aim to inform, promote and provide training as well as organize performing art about
ethic communities.
The proposed Ethnic Art Center proposed in Dhankuta will have a space designed to
perform, display, involve and train various forms of cultural heritage of major ethnic
community living in the region. The public building with urban plaza will serve local
people as day out and hangout space from daily life. Visitors and tourists will learn about
ethnic art in the library, museum, galleries, and performing art/cultural shows. People
will not only see and learn but will be offered to involve directly by engaging in
workshops and hands-on activities. The restaurant in center will serve ethnic food with
authentic indigenous flavor. The shops will offer the locally made fine souvenir for token
of love.

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1.4. OBJECT IVES
 To create a building to accommodate various cultural activities of different ethnic
communities.
 To revitalize the downtown Dhankuta area by creating an urban plaza and a
communal space.
 To provide a space for performing cultural activities for different ethnic
communities.
 To secure the space for keeping/displaying their cultural items before they
disappear.
 To design universal access and built contextual architecture
1.5. BENEFICIARIES
Project will be specially benefited by local community as the center will be built, use and
sustained by them. The programs need their active participation and involvement which
not only save and promote our heritage but also help to generate income and activities in
town. Other beneficiaries are:
 Tourist and visitors can stay for long period to see and learn about regional arts
 Schools of Dhankuta bazaar can link their curriculum with the activities of Center
to educate children on ethnic art and culture so that the understanding and
appreciation for ethnic culture will grow among the younger generation.
 Downtown shops and hotels will also benefits as the activity grows and the place
could be a stop point for tourists on Koshi highway.
 Local people can use for refreshment and hang out in landscape, plaza, restaurant
and see performance.
.

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1.6. JUSTIFICATION
For a nation to be established there need to be identity. Identity is developed by history
and background of people living there. This beautiful diversity of community is due to
different ethnic tribes settled in one place coming from different places and evolved
there. This evolution of culture and civilization forms the unique pattern of lifestyle,
costumes, belief systems, tradition and architecture. But now due to change in socio-
economic status and influence of globalization and modernization has eroded the genuine
lifestyle. Currently living in transitional phase traditional lifestyle and culture of
indigenous people is facing a change and many heritages are either lost or out of practice.
The ‗ethnic art center‘ ensures the space for keeping art and cultural works along with
live performing of yearly cultural and religious activities of different ethnic community.
The project not only plays important role in saving the cultural diversity of different
ethnic communities which are being obsolete but also engage people with entertainment
and revive the cultural traditions. The idea of collecting different ethnical activities of
EDR to one place and performing them live also help to promote the regional ethnic art
and promote it to become domestic and international tourist center.
Such kind of project with exact program has not been built in Nepal till now. This makes
more need of project of such kind since cultural activities today are being lost and there
are no place to bring them together. Presently festival gathering happens in Tudikhel,
cultural performances are carried out in open spaces or community halls, art and cultural
objects are kept and displayed in museum. No such engaging and training center are
established till now. Therefore these kinds of ethnic cultural activities are searching for
space to be under same roof.

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1.7. SCOPE AND LIMITATION
Architecture thesis is taken as the output of total five years learnings. The academic
knowledge is to be reflected through sincere research and its implementation on the
design. Backing up with historical preference and theoretical underpinning with actual
knowledge of material, construction and technology is essential. The design also needs to
consider building science, green feature and universal accessibility. Likewise social,
cultural and physical factors also need to be considered. The first reason for site selection
is my personal sentiment and desire to develop the place where I grew up. Research of
local architecture is mostly based on direct observation and analysis which later has been
interpreted into the design. Observation and study in research consists the detail study
within the architectural discipline. The general terms, culture, language, names of objects,
costumes, ornaments, instruments is researched. Theoretical study in regional architecture
has been carried out for clarifying the concept and principle guidelines. The design
process is followed as per architectural practices set up in design studio.
1.8. METHOD
Topic and site
General data and Literature study
Case studies and Analysis
Site Analysis
Formulation of Program
Concept design
Design development
Final design proposal
Drawings and presentation with models
1.9. OUTPUT ENVISAGED
As thesis will combines both research and implementation, the output is expected to
provide solution of problems identified and analysis undertaken. The project will be
experimental being within the context and produce contextual building in coherence with
local urban fabric and climate. The programs are also envisioned as such so to produce
and reflect regional architecture. The design will be presented in form of panel of
literature, case study, concept, design development and final drawings. Final drawings
will consist of master plan, site plan, floor plans, elevations, sections, 3d and model.

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2.LITERATURE REVIEW

13
“The key indicator of this decline in cultural diversity is language loss. Each one is an
old-growth forest of the mind. Linguists agree, however, that 50 percent of the world’s
7,000 languages are endangered. Every fortnight an elder dies and carries with him or
her into the grave the last syllables of an ancient tongue. Within a generation or two,
then, we may be witnessing the loss of fully half of humanity’s social, cultural and
intellectual legacy. This is the hidden backdrop of our age.”
Wade Davis
2.1. ETHNIC GROUPS
Ethnic groups are members sharing certain beliefs, values, habits, customs and norms
because of their common background. They define themselves as different and special
because of cultural features. They are viewed and treated as if features are biological but
not exactly race. Ethnicity is based on cultural traditions, while races are based mainly on
biological traits.
Ethnic group is distinguished by cultural similarities (shared among members of that
Group) & differences (between that group and others). Ethnic groups share beliefs,
values, habits, customs and norms, and a common language, religion, history, geography,
kinship or ―race‖. Markers of Ethnic Group may include a collective name, belief in
common descent, a sense of solidarity and an association with territory which the group
may or may not hold.
Also ethnic groups and caste are often confused, as stated in a dictionary of sociology
caste is a form of social stratification characterized by endogamy, hereditary transmission
of a lifestyle which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy and
customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultural notions of purity and
pollution.
Where is contrast ethnic groups are not stratified as hierarchy of occupation, ritual status
nor social status rather it is community which may be of multiple race and origin living
together for a long time and developing their unique culture. As Dennis O'Neil stated
ethnicity is also not a static phenomenon. It can change through time in complex ways.

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A Janajati (Ethnic Groups /Nationalities) as defined by the National Committee for
Development of Nationalities (1996) is as follows:
―Nationality (Janajati) is that community which has its own mother tongue and traditional
culture and yet does not fall under the conventional four fold Varna of Hindu or Hindu
hierarchical caste structure. A Janajati group has the following characteristics:

A distinct collective identity
Own language, religion, tradition, culture and civilization; own traditional egalitarian
social structure
Traditional homeland or geographical area
Written or oral history
Having ―we-feeling‖;
Have had no decisive role in politics and government in modern Nepal;
Who declare themselves as Janajati
Historically, many of these Janajati groups used to occupy a particular habitat or territory,
and thus many of them claim that they are the true ―First Settlers‖ (Adivasi) of Nepal.
Like the caste Hindus, the Janajati can also be divided into two distinct regional groups:
Hill Janajati and Tarai Janajati.
Some of the Hill Janajati groups are: Magar, Gurung, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa, Sunuwar,
Bhote, Raji, Raute and others.
Some of the Terai Janajati groups are: Tharu, Dhimal, Gangain, Satar/Santhal,
Dahngar/Jhangar, Koche, Meche and others.
The National Committee of Nationalities which noted 59 distinct cultural groups as
Janajati (published in Nepal Rajpatra, February 2, 2002) also identified them in different
ecological regions: 18 groups from the Mountain, 23 groups from the Hill and 7 groups
from the Inner Terai and 11 groups from the Terai. Of them, the CBS could record only
42 Janajati groups with their population size and the population size of other 17 groups
(13 from the Mountain, 3 from the Hills and 1 from the Terai) is not available. According
to Gurung (2002: 12), of the total 18 Janajati groups listed in the Mountain (or Himal),
the CBS recorded only five groups (Bhote, Byanshi, Sherpa, Thakali and Walung) and
the rest other groups are labeled as Bhote or they are simply the identification of the
group through Tibetan language. Likewise, Gurung (2002: 13) claims that ―Free‖ is the
group related with Pahari, Surel with Jirel and Bankariya with Chepang.

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The Newar group, whose Hindu population is more than 84% according to the 2001
census, and who are strictly hierarchical in their structure, is also labeled as Janajati.
Similarly, 97.6 percent of the Tharu populations follow Hindu religion, according to the
2001 census.
The above list of Janajati suggests that identity of Janajati is extremely elusive and often
arbitrary in the context of Nepal.
TERMS
MINORITY GROUP; Minority groups are subordinate groups (% of population and %
control of wealth) in a social political hierarchy with inferior power and less secure
access to resources than majority groups have.
MAJORITY GROUPS: Dominant or controlling groups in a social-political hierarchy
2.2. ETHINIC GROUPS IN WORLD
A group of people considered to be significantly different from others in terms of cultural
and sometimes physical characteristics. Commonly recognized groups include American
Indians, Jews, Latinos, Chinese, African Americans, Bengali, Arabs, and European
Americans etc. Dialect, religion, and style of dress are commonly used symbolic badges
to identity and emphasize distinctness from each other ethnic groups. Biological
characteristics, such as skin color and body shape, may be used as well. Han Chinese is
largest ethnic groups in the world speaking Mandarin Chinese language. Nation and
nation-state is an autonomous, centrally organized political entity. Ethnic groups are not
necessarily so formally politically organized. The majority of all nation-states have more
than one ethnic group, and the multi-ethnicity of all countries is increasing with
migration/immigration. Nation-states are formal governments that contain multiple ethnic
groups. Nationalities are ethnic groups that aspire to autonomous statehood.
2.3. ETHNIC GROUPS IN NEPAL
Central Bureau of Statistics 2011 census
CASTE/ETHNICITY: There are 126 caste/ethnic groups reported in the census
2011. Chhetri is the largest caste/ethnic groups having 16.6% (4,398,053) of the total
population followed by Brahman-Hill (12.2% ; 3,226,903), Magar (7.1% ; ,887,733),
Tharu (6.6% ; 1,737,470), Tamang (5.8% ; 1,539,830), Newar (5% ; 1,321,933), Kami
(4.8% ; 1,258,554), Musalman (4.4% ; 1,164,255), Yadav (4% ; 1,054,458) and Rai
(2.3% ; 620,004).

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MOTHER TONGUE: There are 123 languages spoken as mother tongue reported
in census 2011. Nepali is spoken as mother tongue by 44.6 percent (11,826,953) of the
total population followed by Maithili (11.7% 3,092,530), Bhojpuri (5.98%; 1,584,958),
Tharu (5.77%; 1,529,875), Tamang (5.11%; 1,353,311), Newar (3.2%; 846,557), Bajjika
(2.99%; 793,418), Magar (2.98%; 788,530), Doteli (2.97%; 787,827), Urdu (2.61%;
691,546).
ETHNIC /CASTE COMPOSITION OF NEPAL…. Dr. Dilli Ram Dahal
Before the conquest of Kathmandu Valley by King Prthivi Narayan Shah in 1768, the
history of Nepal was the history of small kingdoms and principalities ruled by different
kings and chiefs. In 89 the east, there were three major kingdoms- Bijaypur, Chaudandi
and Makwanpur. In the kingdom like Bijaypur, there were various groups of peoples such
as the Rai, Limbu, Sunuwar, Lepcha and others. To the west of Kathmandu, there were
the Chaubise (twenty-four) kingdoms and in the far west across the Karnali River, there
were the Baise (twenty two) kingdoms. If the Khas and other groups were living in the
far- western Hills, Magar, Gurung and others were living in the western Hill regions.
Tharu, Dhimal, Rajbangsi and others were living in the Terai. Similarly, the Kathmandu
Valley, which included three small kingdoms, was inhabited mostly by the Newars. In
brief, Nepal became a multi-cultural, multi-religious and multi-lingual state only after the
unification of Nepal in 1768 and subsequent consolidation of the state thereafter.
Let me briefly discuss the distinct cultural characteristics of various groups of people
living in Nepal, so that these census data on ethnic/caste groups could be discussed in a
proper anthropological/sociological perspective.
In Nepal, though there are more than 100 ethnic/caste groups with distinct language and
culture, these diverse ethnic/caste groups can be arranged into five broad cultural groups:
i) the caste origin Hindu groups; ii) the Newar, iii) the Janajati or nationalities, iv)
Muslim or Musalman and
v) Other.

17
ETHNIC DEMOGRAPHY OF NEPAL………. Harka Gurung
DEFINITION
The basic elements of social composition include (a) race, as ethnicity/caste; (b) language
or mother tongue; and (c) religion or belief. Many tend to include all these three under
the rubric of 'ethnicity'. This seems misplaced.
One also finds loose use of terms in Nepalese anthropological literature. This refers to
transposition of linguistic labels in ethnic context such as 'Indo-Aryan' for Caucasoid or
Khasa and 'Tibeto-Burman' for Mongoloid or Kirant. These two racial divisions also
differ in social structure in that the Caucasoids are caste-based and the Mongoloids are
mostly tribal. It would be useful here to make a subtle distinction of native terms 'jat'
(caste) for the Caucasoids and 'Jati' (nationality) for the Mongoloids although they have a
common etymology in the sense of 'species'. The former pertains to vertical (social)
status differentiation and the latter to horizontal (spatial) groupings.
COMPOSITION
Two-thirds of Nepal's total population belongs to the hill origin group. People of Terai
origin come next with 30.9 percent; those of inner Terai origin and mountain origin are
1.1 percent and 0.7 percent respectively. Thus, 67.9 percent of total population is of
highland origin and 32.0 percent of lowland origin. In terms of social structure, caste
people constitute 56.2 percent of total population. The ethnics are 35.5 percent and the
rest 8.3 percent subsumed as others.
Of the enumerated 30 castes, 9 are of hill origin and 20 of Terai origin. However, the hill
castes with Nepali mother tongue form the largest social group with 40.3 percent of total
population. These include the political elites Bahun, Chhetri, and Thakuri (30.6%) as well
as artisan castes Kami, Damai, and Sarki (8.7%). In fact, Kami outnumber all other
ethnics except Magar, Tharu, Newar and Tamang. The Terai has numerous castes but the
proportion of dominant castes, Brahmin, Rajput and Kayastha is very small (1.6%). Of
the 26 listed ethnic groups, 3 are from mountain, 11 from hill, 7 from inner Terai and 5
from the Terai. Ethnic groups of mountain origin are the Bhotia, Thakali and Sherpa. Hill
ethnics include the traditional Gurkha tribes (Gurung, Magar, Limbu, Rai) who account
for 14.1 percent of the total population. Other populous hill ethnics are the Tamang (5.5
percent) and the Newar (5.6 percent). The seven ethnics of the inner Terai are small
isolated groups. The Terai is represented by five ethnic groups of which the Tharu (6.5
percent) form the largest ethnic group of Nepal after the Magar (7.2 percent).

18
DISTRIBUTION
In all, only eleven social groups emerge as the majority in population at the district level.
Out of the 75 districts, the Chhetri are majority in 22 districts. The Bahun predominate in
nine districts followed by the Tamang in seven. The Magar, Tharu, and Rai are in
majority in six districts each. The Yadav are a majority in five districts between Bagmati
and Koshi rivers. The Gurung and Muslim are more numerous in four districts each. The
Limbu and Newar outnumber other ethnic/caste groups in three contiguous districts each.
In the case of the Rai, Gurung, Limbu, and Newar, there is convergence in the group of
districts with their majority population and their native area.
2.4. ETHNIC GROUP IN EDR
Dhankuta is the regional headquarters of the ER. The region is regarded as having a
diverse landscape, ecology and bio-diversity. The ER is home to a mosaic of ethnicities
and languages as its population comprises major castes and ethnic groups - Brahman,
Chhetri, Rai, Limbu, Tharu, different Madhesi groups and Dalit castes. Its population
speaks Nepali, Maithili, Tharu, Tamang, Magar, Sherpa, Bantawa, Gurung, Limbu and
other indigenous languages.
According to the 2001 Census there are, in addition to the 103 distinct castes and ethnic
groups that make up 98% of the ER, indigenous nationalities (0.01%), unidentified Dalits
(0.18%) and unidentified ethnic groups (1.81%) living in the ER.
One of the main Janajati groups, the Rai, live in the Solukhumbu, Okhaldhunga,
Khotang, Bhojpur and Udaypur districts, while the Limbu inhabit the Sankhuwasabha,
Tehrathum, Dhankuta, Taplejung, Panchthar and Ilam districts. Gurung, Tamang and
Magar groups are found in the hill districts of Okhaldhunga, Sankhuwasabha and
Taplejung whilst the Tharus are mostly found in the Udayapur district and the Bhujels
scattered across the Eastern hills.

19
List of ethnic Major groups in EDR
ETHNIC/CASTE POPULATIO
N
Total 5811555
Brahman-hill 5623823
Chhetri 685481
Rai 517278
Limbu 365563
Yadav 316441
Tharu 288439
Musalman 267564
Tamang 219783
Magar 199896
Newar 174967
Kami 157370
Musahar 140132
Teli 118587
Damai/dhoti 83321
Chamar/harijan/ram 77921
Gurung 62793
Sarki 47063
CBS census 2011
The Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) has categorized 59
indigenous nationalities which are categorized by the National Foundation for
Development of Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN) into five categories: endangered,
highly marginalized, marginalized, disadvantaged and advanced groups. There are 29
linguistic groups in the ER. The vulnerable and minority ethnic groups inhabiting the ER
are shown in Table below. The table shows that Jhapa, Morang and Sankhuwasabha
districts have a majority of the ethnic groups in the ER.

20
List of minority and excluded/marginalized ethnic groups in the ER
Ethnic group Location Population Level of
marginalizatio
n
Recognition
status
1 Meche (Bodo) Jhapa 3,763 Endangered Listed
2 Lepcha Ilam, Dhankuta 3,660 Endangered Listed
3 Gangai Jhapa, Morang 31,318 Marginalized Listed
4 Kisan Jhapa 2,876 Endangered Listed
5 Jhangad
(Urawa)
Sunsari, Morang 41,764 Marginalized Listed
6 Sherpa Solukhumbu,
Taplejung
110,358 Excluded Listed
7 Lhomi
(Shingsaba)
Sankhuwasabha Not
enumerated-
Minority
Marginalized Listed
8 Tajpuria Jhapa and Morang 13,250 Marginalized Listed
9 Tokpegola
(Dhokpya)
Taplejung Estimated:
2,000-3,000 -
Minority
Marginalized Listed
10 Dhanuk
(Rajbanshi)
Saptari, Siraha 188,150 Marginalized Listed
11 Jhapa, Morang,
Sunsari
95,812 Marginalized Unlisted/uni
dentified
12 Walung Taplejung 1,448 Marginalized Listed
13 Dhimal Jhapa, Morang 19,539 Marginalized Listed
14 Satar
(Santhal)
Jhapa, Morang,
Sunsari
42,689 Marginalized Listed
15 Jogi Tehrathum,
Taplejung,
Sankhuwasabha,
Jhapa
Not
enumerated -
Minority
Excluded Unlisted/uni
dentified

21
6 Sunuwar Okhaldhunga 95,254 (total
of Nepal)
Marginalized Listed
17 Yakkha Sankhuwasabha,
Dhankuta
17003 Excluded Listed
18 Kumal Sankhuwasabha 99,383 (Total
of Nepal)
Marginalized Listed
19 Majhi Udayapur,
Dhankuta,
Okhaldhungha
72,614 (Total
of Nepal)
Excluded Listed
20 Aathpahariya Dhankuta Minority Marginalized Unlisted/uni
dentified
21 Kulung Dhankuta, Morang,
Sunsari
Minority Excluded Unlisted/uni
dentified
2 2 Yamphu Sankhuwasabha Minority Excluded Unlisted/uni
dentified
23 Kewat Jhapa, Morang Minority Marginalized Unlisted/uni
dentified
24 Kewarat Jhapa, Morang Minority Marginalized Unlisted/uni
dentified
25 Kurmi Saptari, Siraha,
Morang
Minority
(231129 in
Nepal 2011)
Marginalized Unlisted/uni
dentified
Source: Websites of Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) -
http://www.nefin.org.np/, National Coalition against Racial Discrimination (NCARD) -
http://www.ncard.org.np/
http://www.himalkhabar.com/hkp/news.php?id=3279 - High level task force list, National
Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN).

22
From the research of history, population status and indigeneous people I dicided to select
some of ethnic groups which belong to historical Kirat Pradesh and mountain and hill
region of EDR. The dicided to take those ethnic groups which are native and are not
found in other region. I also decided not to take ethnic group from terai belt beacause of
scale of project and their unique character which demand separate ethnic art centre in
their region. Thus i limited myself on historical Kirat Pradesh rather than taking EDR.
Mojor ethnic groups are Rai and Limbu.Minor and endangered ethnic groups are
Athpahariya, Lepcha, Sherpa, Lhomi, Tokpegola, Walung, Jogi, Yakkha, majhi, Kumala
and Yamphu.
Because of unique settlement of Athpahariya which is not seen anywhere else beside
three VDC of Dhankuta and making up 23% of total population of Municipaity I deceded
to give equal priviledge as major ethnic group to be researched.
ETHNIC DISTRIBUTION OF ATHPAHARIYA, RAI AND
LIMBU
Population of Athpahariya Rai living in Dhankuta: 100%
Source: (Source: Village development committee and demographic profile of Nepal 2013)
83%
17%
Rai in EDR
Rai except in
EDR
94%
6%
Limbu in
EDR
Limbu
except in
EDR

23
2.5. MAJOR ETHNIC GROUPS: CLOSE STUDY
2.5.1. RAI:
INTRODUCTION
The Rais are one of the most ancient indigenous ethnolinguistic groups of Nepal. They
were Raipa meaning king (Rai means King in old Khas kura). Once someone was
recognized as a ruler, Hindus awarded them the title Rai. When the
Nepalese Gorkha king Prithvi Narayan Shah couldn't defeat Khambu king, he somehow
took them in confidence that the land is theirs forever and gave them the title Rai in
around B.S. 1832 .The Rai are the Khambu (people living in Mud Hut). The Rai belong
to the Kirati group or the Kirat confederation that includes Limbu, Rai, Sunuwar,
Yakkha, and Dhimal ethnic Groups.
According to the anthropologist Dor Bahadur Bista of Tribhuvan University and late
Professor Suniti Kumar Chatterji (linguist and kiratologist, Calcutta University), Kirats
migrated from the east via north Burma and Assam along the mid-hills (lower mountains)
with their pigs in ancient times. It specially refers to Limbu and Dhimal who called
themselves Yakthumba or Yoktumba. According to Iman sing Chemjong they migrated
from the Assam valley to Pallo kirant in around 600 AD.
LANGUAGE & SCRIPT:
Kirat Rai speaks more than 32 different dialects within the Tibeto-Burman languages
family. The oral language is rich and ancient, as is Kirati history, but the written script
remains yet to be properly organized as nearly all traces of it was destroyed by the next
rulers of Nepal, The Lichhavis and almost eradicated by the Shah dynasty.
The Kirat Rai doesn‘t have their own script but use ‗Sirijonga‘ script which is shown
below.

24
RELIGION & CULTURE:
The traditional Kirati religion, apparently predating Hinduism and Buddhism, is based on
ancestor-worship and the placation of ancestor spirits through elaborate rituals governed
by rules called Mundum. Sumnima and Paruhang are worshipped as primordial parents.
Sikatakhu Budo, Walmo Budi, and Jalpa Devi, among others, serve as Kirati deities. A
major Rai holiday is the harvest festival, Nwogi, when fresh harvested foods are shared
by all. The Bijuwa or Nakchhung (Dhami) or Priest plays an important role in Rai
communities.
The Rai community can be described as worshippers of nature. When the wildlife begins
moving to the high hills of the Himalayan ranges while the seeds sown in the fields by
the tribes grow and bloom with flowers, the tribes perform Sakela puja which includes
dancing and singing. The dance is called Silli and mimics the movements of birds and
animals during their migration. The performance of Sakela puja is led by the Nakchong
(the Rai priest) or by the head of an important family in his absence. During Sakewa puja
instruments such as the dhol (or dhela), the jyamta, the bow and arrow, the chindo (local
vegetable), the yak tail, and the cock and hen are used.
After Sakela Puja, the Rai community is banned from playing any musical instruments
until after they have performed the harvest festival, udhauwli, in August and September.
At this time the birds and the animals return from the high hills to the low lands and puja
silli is completed.

25
ETHIC
GROUP
RAI
Origin Burma, Assam
Population 620,004 (2.1%)
language 32 dialects of Tibeto-Burman
Etymology Kings in khas kura
Deity worship Sumnima-Paruhang
Costume Mekhi, kaichi mar gunue, chaubandi cholo, tangdongma, patuka,
Daura suruwal, patuka, Nepal topi
JEWELLERY Silver and gold
Reji, tilahari, kantha, naugedi, dhungri, bulaki, lawangfuli, lurka
and kandhungri
Musical
instruments
Drums: Siliken, Hongken, Sumniken, Paruken and Chenbiken, all
of them, a kind of drum,
String instruments : yele, binayo, murchunga
Dance Chandi nach,
Local alcohol
beverage
aaraakha, ngashi, or waasim and wachipa
occupation Agriculture, animal, husbandry
Agriculture rice, millet, wheat, corn and cotton

26
2.5.2. LIMBU
INTRODUCTION
The Limbu or Yakthung tribes and clans belong to the Kirati nation or to
the Kirat confederation. They are indigenous people living in the hill and mountainous
regions of east Nepal between the Arun and Mechi rivers to as far as southern Tibet,
Bhutan and Sikkim. The name Limbu is an exonym of an uncertain origin. The
word Limbu roughly translates as an archer or 'the bearer of bows and arrows'. They call
themselves Yakthumba/Yakthung (in Limbu language). Limbu Clans and Tribes are
divided into the Lhasa gotra (from Lhasa, Tibet) and Yunnan gotra
(from Yunnan, China). The Limbu are known as Yakthung Thi-bon or Des Limbu (ten
Limbu), from which thirteen Limbu sub-groups have emerged. According to legend, five
of the groups came from Yunnan, China (Sinyuk) and the other eight from Lhasa, Tibet
(Muden). Unlike the caste system which was brought to the Nepal region after the Hindu
invasion, a caste system is not practiced among the Limbu people and Limbu sub-groups.
However, there are numerous different clans and family-sects.
KIRATI ALPHABET
The Limbu or Kirati alphabet was probably modeled on the Lepcha alphabet, which is
thought to have derived from the Tibetan alphabet. According to many historians, King
Sirijonga invented the "Kirat-Sirijonga Script" in the late 9th century. It disappeared for
many years and was then reintroduced by Te-ongsi Sirijonga (believed to be
reincarnation of King Sirijonga), in the 17th century. In 1925, Iman Singh Chemjong, a
Limbu scholar, named the script after Sirijonga who had laid down his life for the
preservation and promotion of script in 1743.
LIMBU CULTURE
Limbu practice many of their own rituals. They believe that lineage is not transmitted
patrilineal. Rather, a woman inherits her mother's goods, and when she marries and lives
with her husband she brings with her the deities that will then be recognized as the
household deities.
Limbu bury their dead and observe for two to three days through practiced death rituals.
The length of the mourning period varies depending on the gender of the deceased.
Weddings, mourning, gift exchanges, and settlement of conflicts involve consumption of
liquor, especially the Limbu traditional beer popularly known as Tongba. Dancing parties

27
are arranged for visitors to the village. These affairs give the young Limbu girls and boys
a chance to meet and enjoy dancing and drinking.
ETHIC
GROUP
LIMBU
Origin Tibet, Yunnan (China)
Population 387,300
language 4 dialects of Tibeto-Burman
Etymology archer or 'the bearer of bows and arrows‗
Deity worship Tagera Ningwaphuma
Costume Female: mekhi, Chunglokek/sunghamba, Chaubandi Cholo, Sim,
Phaoee
Male: Paga, Ningkheng, Phaoee- Sandokpa, Sungrehba, Lapetta
and pagappa,Paohao,
Hangchang, Hangpen
Sports Archery, Bare-hand Wrestling( Lakhpa)
JEWELLERY Silver and gold
Mundri, laskari, chyaptae soon, bulaki, kanta, tilahari, nau gedi,
shirphuli,
Songs Khyali , Palam Samlo, Hakpare Samlo, Nisammang Sewa Samlo
Musical
instruments
Niyari Hongsing Ke,Ting,Drum, Chyabrung, Miklakom, Simikla,
Chethya/Yethala, Ta, Tungeba, Ungdung, Yalambar Baja,
Tetlafakwa, Mephrama, Negra, Yea Pongey, Puttungey, Phakwa,
Phamuk, Phenjekom, and Megphama.
Dance Ke Lang or Chyabrung Lang, Yea Kakma, Damke Akme, War
dance (Nahangma), Historical dance, Yagrangsing Lang,
Phungsok Lang, Tongsing Lang
Local alcohol
beverage
The (local beer), wine
occupation Agriculture, animal husbandry
Agriculture Rice and maize

28
2.5.3. ATHPAHARIYA
INTRODUCTON
The word Athpahariya is not derived from the native language spoken by the people of
this ethnic group; rather its derivation is related to the Nepali compound word Athpahar,
involving Ath (which means ‗eight in number‘) and Pahar (meaning ‗the time period of 3
hours‘). Since eight Pahars equal 24 hours, Athpahariya means ‗the person who
dedicates himself in working for twenty four hours‘. In the past, particularly the kings‘
body guards were the persons having such a duty to fulfill; therefore it is said that people
belonging to particular section of Rai community who were deputed as the kings‘ body
guards were entitled Athpahariya. But there are debates regarding who were the kings
these people had served as Athpahariya. In one document published by the government, it
is said that after taking control over the far-eastern Kirant kingdom, king Prithvi Narayan
Shah had deputed the people of this ethnic group in the post of Security Guard, for the
protection of Dhankuta Khalangakot; so they were called the Athpahariya. In another folk
etymological explanation, it has been said that the Athpahariya folk group was developed
from the eight families of eight surnames (in Nepali Ath Pariwar) of the Rai community
who used to live in and around Dhankuta region from time immemorial. In their
Mundum (oral Veda), Athpahariya people still mention the kingdom of Margahang,
which was located within the border points of Mudhe-Guranshe in the north, Tamor river
in the south, Tankhuwa rivulet in the east and Uttarpani-Marga Pokhari in the west.
Athpahariya believe that they are the descendants of the security force who were
deployed to protect this Margahang kingdom.
FAMILY AND KINSHIP AND KINSHIP
Athpahariya Rai has the practice of living in both the nuclear and joint families. In the
nuclear family, there are two generations of people, whereas a joint family has three or
more generations living together by sharing the same house and kitchen. Normally the
son does not get separated immediately after his marriage. But after the marriage of his
younger brother, he may wish to live separately. At the time of separation, the parental
property is divided equally between the parents and sons. Mainly three forms of kinship
are found among Athpahariya: i) kinship by blood; e.g. brother and sister, ii) kinship by
marriage; e.g. father-in-law, sister-in-law, etc., iii) kinship by social relation; e.g. Miteri
(friendship bond established after a special ritual) relation.

29
FOLK FESTIVALS
The main festivals celebrated in this folk group are: Baishakhe (Bisu), Bhadaure
(Chamanwagi), Mangshire (Wadangmi), etc. Baishakhe is celebrated in the month of
Baishakh (April-May), when the cultivation season starts. People in this folk group
worship Jimi-Bhumi (god of the land) as their god on this occasion, which symbolizes
that they are giving importance to the contribution of land in their lives. Bhadaure is
celebrated during Bhadra (August- September). In this festival, they offer rice-grains of
Ghaiya (an indigenous paddy variety) and Jand locally prepared beer) of Pangdur
(indigenous millet variety) to their god. Mangshire is the greatest festival of Athpahariya
Rai, celebrated in the month of Mangshir (November-December). On this occasion, the
people who have lost their parents within the running year go to the Mangbung Pujari
(the folk religious priest) with the cloth items worn by their parents. Then they worship
and offer those things to the folk gods as well as their ancestors. Some other rituals
performed on this occasion include: Bhejo Lagaune (killing the he-buffalo and
distributing its meat), Maruni Nach (a folk dance, in which boys dance in woman‘s
dress), etc. Most of the Athpahariya Rai does not celebrate Dashain and Tihar; but those
who are Chhitlinge by surname are following some major customs and rituals of Dashain
– like growing Jamara and sacrificing animals at Moula (a special place where the folk
gods are worshipped).
WADANGMET:
Wadangmet is one of the most important festivals celebrated by the Aathpahariya Rai
Community of Dhankuta. They celebrate their festival Wadangmet for 18 days and
during the festival people of this community visits villages where Aathpahariya Rai
people lives and performed their Dhol Dance and collect the money and half of the
money they keep in their own fund and from the other half they buy the buffalo. In earlier
days, they used to buy ox for the feast. During the festival, they performed 18 dances and
with each dance they sacrifice one he buffalo. The second last day is Khoie Khane
(Bhailo Khane). On this day, they worship their ancestor for the blessings and they cook
special meal from buff called Khoie or Bhailo.
Aathpahariya Rai Community of Dhankuta celebrates their last day of Wadangment
festival on the day of Saraswati puja. People have to go in secret places and perform their
puja. These secret places necessarily require pond or stream and plant of malauti flower (
choya ko phool) where this community people are going to perform their puja. These puja
have to be performed in secret places with either ponds or stream and plants of malauti
flower. After giving sacrifice of virgin goat or rooster chicken puja will be completed.

30
The act of scarifying either a virgin goat or a rooster chicken marks the completion of the
puja. They also performed Maruni Dance while calling all the god and goddess they
worshipped. Maruni dance is also performed during the calling of all the worshipping
gods and goddesses.
ATHPAHARIYA LANGUAGE
This language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language family, and grouped under the
Kirati sub-branch of the family. Till now, it has not been used in the electronic media, nor
in any specialized functions such as education, office or press. So, its use is limited to
folk communication alone, for purpose of conversation among the people of Athpahariya
Rai community. But there are some studies on the language and culture of this folk
group. To explore the linguistic features of this language a bit further, altogether 5 vowels
and 21 consonant sounds have been identified in it.
After a discussion between the FOFO project researchers and the members of
Athpahariya Kirant Rai Samaj, the work of standardization of this language has just
begun, along with the beginning of writing it. But the language does not have its own
script; so Devanagari script has been adopted in these works. Some variations have been
found this language spoken in the different areas of the folk group‘s settlement. But the
language spoken in the 7th, 8th and 9th wards of Dhankuta municipality has been
followed as the norm for the standardization process.

31
Figure 1 Ethnic dress, ornaments
and instruments

32
Figure 2 Ethnic dress, ornaments and
costumes

33
Figure 3 Ethnic
Dresses

34
ETHNIC GROUP ATHPAHARIYA
Origin Burma, Assam
Population 1442
language Tibeto-Burman
Etymology 24 hr. guard man
Deity worship Jimi, Marga
Festival Baisakhe, Bhadaure, Mangsire
Costume Men: chaubandi lotling, thute suruwal, deuti bhoto, bhabat, cap
Women: mekhi, chhitatim, takombi
Sports children Chongchinget or Chimusichi, Phesreke or Nangchhiri,
Dhukumuku, Gatti, Sinkauli, etc. are the important ones.
Youths Chhelo (throwing the stone), Dandi-biyo (striking a short
stick with a longer one), Phalmari (long-jump), etc
occasion of social customs and rituals include: Baghchal, Dhanu-
Ban (bow and arrow), swinging on the rope, Ratyauli, Ulangkhutti
Maroti, etc.
Jewellerys Nak fhuli, bulaki, tariwan, bichkini, patewa, hansuli
Mostly silver
Songs
Musical
instruments
Chyangrumba or Dhol, Chhangchhuppa or Jhyamta, Angom
(Binayo), Murchunga, urali/Bansuri, Mandala (madal), Jhyali, Majira
Dance Dhole Nach and Maruni Nach. Dhole Nach is also called the
Mangshire Nach,
Local alcohol
beverage
Local beer snd wine
Occupation Agriculture, animal husbandry

35
2.6. ANNUAL FESTIVAL CALANDER OF ETHNIC
GROUPS
Month Festivals of
Athpaharia
Days Festival of
Limbu
Days Festival of Rai Days
1 Baisakh Baishakhe (Bisu) 7 Yakwa or
yokwa
Tangnam
Bhumi puja sakela
ubhauli fullmoon
15
2 Jestha
3 Asar
4 Shrawan Shrawane
Sakranti
1 Sisekwa
Tangnam (1)
1 Shrawane Sakranti 1
5 Bhadra Bhadaure
(Chamanwagi)
5
6 Asoj
7 Kartic Walihang
Tangnang
(tihar)
3
8 Mangsir Mangshire
(Wadangmi),
15 Chasok
tangnam
fullmoon
1 Sakela udhauli
fullmon
7
9 poush
10 Magh Maghe Sakranti
(yele sambat) new
year of kirat
1 Kakphekwa
Tangnam or
kokphatla
(yele sambat)
new year of
kirat
1 Maghe Sakranti
(yele sambat) new
year of kirat
1
11 Falgun
12 Chaitre Kusang
Tnagnam
(chaite
dashain)
1 Chaite Dashain 1
Source: collected by author

36
3. THEORY

37
3.1. CRITICAL REGIONALISM
Critical regionalism is an approach to architecture that strives to counter the placelessness
and lack of identity of the International Style (architecture), but also rejects the whimsical
individualism and ornamentation of Postmodern architecture. The stylings of critical
regionalism seeks to provide an architecture rooted in the modern tradition, but tied to
geographical and cultural context. Critical regionalism is not simply regionalism in the
sense of vernacular architecture. It is a progressive approach to design that seeks to
mediate between the global and the local languages of architecture.
In Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six points for an architecture of resistance, Frampton
recalls Paul Ricoeur's "how to become modern and to return to sources; how to revive an
old, dormant civilization and take part in universal civilization". According to Frampton's
proposal, critical regionalism should adopt modern architecture, critically, for its
universal progressive qualities but at the same time value should be placed on the
geographical context of the building. Emphasis, Frampton says, should be on topography,
climate, light; on tectonic form rather than on scenography (i.e. painting theatrical
scenery) and should be on the sense of touch rather than visual sense. Frampton draws
on phenomenology for his argument.
According to the philospher Paul Ricouer, a hybrid ―world culture‖ will only be a
possibilty through a croos fertilization between rooted culture and appropriate universal
civilization on the other.
A distinction must be made between vernacular, which is an instrumental sign method,
used to evoke not a perception of reality, but uses preconceived information to
evoke certain desires. ―Critical Regionalism is a dialectical expression.‖ It self-
conciosly(self awarely) seeks to deconstruct universal modern trends in a way that can be
applied to that which is locally cultivated. So whilse maintaing rooted cultures and
―autochthonous elements‖ it is also ―adulterated‖ through the introduction of ideas from
alien sources.
Another distinction between vernacular (or Populism) and Regionalism is that
Populism,‖aims not to provide a livable and significant environment but rather to achieve
a highly photogenic form of scenography.‖

38
―Each design must catch, with the utmost rigor, a aprecise moment of the flittering
image, in all its shades, and the better you can recognize that flattering quality of reality,
the clearer your design will be…‖
Key elements of successful critical regionalism:
1. Grounded in topography
2. Response to urban fabric
3. Sensitivity to local materials
4. Sensitivity to craft work
5, Subtleties of local light
A. Sense of filtration and penetration ―Similar feelings and concerns are evident on
his opposition to the invasion of privacy in the modern world and in his criticism of the
subtle erosion of nature which has accompanied postwar civilization.‖
―Everyday life is much too public. Radio, T.V. telephone all invade privacy…..Architects
are forgetting the need of human beings for half-light the sort of light that imposes a
tranquility in their living rooms as well as in their bedrooms….Before the machine age,
even in the middle of cities, Nature was everybody‘s trusted companion….Nowadays the
situation is reversed. Man does not meet with Nature, even when he leaves the city to
commune with her. Enclosed in his shiny automobile…Nature becomes a scrap of nature
and man a scrap of man.‖ ‖
By resisting the visual, and thus the perspective of Western tendency, Critical
Regionalism brings to our senses all the range of human perceptions. Perspective as
rationalized sight suppresses the senses causing a distancing similar to what Heidegger
has called "the loss of nearness." 13 The tactile physically opposes this visual surfacing
of reality, a medium conditioned predominately by the media industry and showing up in
the architectural works of Graves, Venturi, etc. The return to touch will realize the
poetics of construction, the tectonic.

39
2.7. URBAN PUBLIC SPACE
Urban public spaces are living organisms, which respond to the varying socio-economic
conditions and cultural patterns of cities. The meanings of public spaces have varied with
time, culture and context. Aristotle believed that an ideal square was one where
nothing was bought or sold, instead ideas were exchanged and debates took place.
Public spaces, their origin and how they have evolved over time are influenced by
physical, cultural and political factors. The physical factors are climate and topography.
Cultural factors are – social public life: catering to the urge to meet, interact and
socialize; functional public life: catering to people‘s everyday needs like buying groceries
etc.; symbolic public life: catering to the need of people to feel a sense of belonging and
being a part of a larger group. Besides the above three, technology and economics are
two other factors influencing public spaces. Technology determines what can be
accomplished by a society in terms of the construction of a physical setting. In addition
electronic devices like the personal computer and the television are changing the way the
middle-classes live and work and the balance between private and public life. Modern
technology like computers, telephones and fax machines is allowing people to work at
home in isolation. Likewise television provides entertainment for the family in the
comfort and security of their home.
According to Carr, Francis, Rivlin, Stone, ―three critical human dimensions should guide
the process of design and management of public space: the users‘ essential needs, their
spatial rights, and the meanings they seek‖.
A space usually becomes meaningful when it truly meets people‘s needs. On the other
hand a monumental public space not catering to people‘s basic needs and contriving a
meaning does not facilitate any connections. Ensuring basic needs and rights of users in a
public space ―creates the fundamental level of civility that prepares the way for the
expression of cultural meanings‖. Meanings change as spaces and functions change. For a
space to have a deeper and long lasting meaning it needs to be ―richly embedded in its
context‖. The site‘s natural setting is its primary context. The history of the site and the
region forms a secondary context, which can lend a site deep meaning. According to the
authors of Public Space the ―most difficult, least developed, and potentially most
rewarding would be the development of qualities and associative meanings that are
special to our own time and place and the experience of our emerging culture‖. Also the
democratic management of a space goes a long way in making people feel a sense of
belonging, ownership and pride in a space, and thus forging a connection with it.
Meaningful elements and events in public spaces should be introduced to retain users‘
interest ―and commitment to the place, qualities that are the foundation of meaning

40
4. STANDARDS

41
4.1. MUSEUM
THE ROLE OF THE MUSEUM
Up to the middle of the 20th century a museum was a place of learning, in which notions
of cultural dominance were reinforced visually through an imposing and often severe
approach in the design of the building. The museum now has to represent a much more
welcoming, all-embracing image, as it can no longer afford to present a single
establishment view of society and must reflect a diversity of cultures and expectations.
The most important task of the contemporary museum is to communicate to the widest
possible audience the breadth of collections and accessibility of learning facilities.
Museums today are complex buildings housing different activities for people with diverse
interests, containing collections and accommodating general and specialist staff dedicated
to providing a service to the public as well as caring for their collections. They have to be
designed for both client and local community, and to connect people of all types with
museum objects.
BASIC FUNCTIONS :
(1) Curatorial, collect store research conserves
(2) Display,
(3) Display preparation,
(4) Education.
ARRANGEMENT FOR ETHNOGRAPHIC AND FOLK
MUSEUMS
Figure 4 space arrangements of museum

42
Figure 5 Field of vision: height/size and distance
DISPLAY AND STORAGE REQUIREMENT OF MUSEUM
LIGHTING
space lux
Office 300 ambient, 500 task
Demonstration theatre: seating area and demonstration area 300 and 600 resp.
Exhibition hall 500/300/100
Workshop 200/500/750
Circulation areas 200
Shops and toilet 600 and 150
Museum type Display % Storage %
National 35 29
Local authority 57 25
Independent 58 12
All museums 53 19

43
TYPES OF LIGHTING
1 wall-washing 2 down lighting
3 up lighting 4 diffused
5 directional spot (accent)
6 lighting of pale objects
7 increased illumination for dark objects
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT:
SOURCES AND CHARACTER
Focused lighting
Natural: sunlight and daylight
Warm and variable, contrast and shadows, bright and glaring
Artificial: incandescent and discharge
Worm (>cool), contrast and shadows, directional light 0 diffused
Unfocused lighting
North light: overcast/daylight
Cool and uniform, flat and soft shadows, lower contrasts
Fluorescent on discharge and incandescent (frosted):
Cool (>warm), low modeling, diffused
MATERIALS
A museum or gallery display is composed of permanent and temporary exhibits in
varying proportions. Temporary exhibitions can amplify and extend permanent
exhibitions, and provide an opportunity to display material normally kept in storage.
Certain basic guidelines apply to the wide field of designing for exhibits:
Walls: Uninterrupted surfaces are needed for displaying artifacts. Fabric-covered or
plasterboard-clad hardboard are easily repaired and can be fixed directly to walls. These
porous materials help to control relative humidity by absorbing and releasing moisture.
Floors, poor finishes: Quiet, comfortable, attractive, hard-wearing, light-reflective and
capable of taking heavy loads. Usually wood, stone or carpet are most suitable.
Figure 5. Types of LightingFigure 6 Types of lighting

44
OBJECT DISPLAY
Most importantly, individual items must be placed at an appropriate viewing level, in
suitable light. Each object must be given a visual context. Emphasis on particular objects
is achieved through design, restricted viewing, positioning etc. The presentation of
information about individual objects has to be made in the context of the overall strategy
for information, which includes the look of the message, editing, graphics, signs and
titles, information panels, labeling the objects, ‗keying‘ of information etc.
Figure 7 Display boxes
CASE DESIGN
Display cases can be a very important part of museum furnishings. Visual and practical
matters have to be considered (e.g. backgrounds, which are important in the context of
the individual case and the total design of the exhibition, and have to be selected with
reference to the compatibility of materials, both of the objects and with their surroundings
within the case). Cases also have to be designed for various aspects of maintenance
access, including the objects housed within, the services (such as lighting, humidification
equipment etc.) and the case itself. See above.
A SCREEN SYSTEM ‘
Where insufficient wall area is available for display/hanging, screen systems are
important. At the Gas Hall, Birmingham, a grid of stainless steel sockets is spread
throughout the hall for fixing an innovative demountable screen system to increase
hanging space. The main screen module of blackboard with hardwood lipping‘s and

45
aluminum edge fixings is 3.25m high and 1.86m wide. A stainless steel barrier can be
fitted to maintain a protective distance between visitors and the display. The barriers can
be linked in ‗runs‘ to create walls of modules. Screens weigh up to 200 kg, so a handling
system has been devised for operation by two trained staff, allowing repositioning of the
screens and their movement to the gantry-hung storage room.
1. hinged-side access: provides good visibility; case dimensions should relate to
arm‘s length for dressing; if cases are placed together, fitting lining panels is
difficult unless divided into convenient sections
2. hinged-front access: permits easy dressing; large cases may require a transom for
stability, which will limit sizes of lining panels and inserted display blocks
3. top-hinged: strong opening stays are required for safety

46
4. sliding front: provides good visibility, easy to dress; a single sliding panel may
need support when fully opened; lining panels may need to be in sections to pass
through the opening
5. two sliding panels: used where space is limited on both sides of the case; glass
‗overlaps‘ when closed, and when sealed with dust-excluding strip, which may be
distracting (some patent sliding systems provide a butt junction) sliding upwards:
eight of glass can present problems and be dangerous when in open position,
strong ‗stops‘ and supports are required
6. sliding downwards
7. lift-off front: provides maximum access for lining panels, display blocks and
placing objects, but the weight of glass may require two people to open the case
8. Demountable case system: useful for temporary and travelling exhibitions; even
when construction is simple a team may be needed for erection 10/11. rear
access: useful for large walk-in cases, but access corridor reduces gallery space;
difficult to see the effect when dressing the case, and to make adjustment at front
once dressed
12/13. Lift-off ‗shade‗or ‗hood‗case: good visibility if constructed with edge-to-edge
glass or penpex; covers too heavy to be manageable in larger sizes without risk to object
displayed
TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHT IN DISPLAY BOX
1. external lighting: through glass tap, but heat may build up unless 'cool' light source is
used; objects can cast shadows when lit by slanting light and possible problems of
glare
2. integral lighting: light box separated from case interior by diffusing glass or louvers
(with clear glass panel excluding dust); fluorescent for even, well-distributed light, or
tungsten, for highlighting, can be accommodated

47
3. lighting from below as well as from upper light box to reduce effect of shadows and
to light undersides of objects; light source must be masked, usually by louvers
backlighting: fluorescent lubes behind diffusing material, usually opal perspex; tubes
must be evenly spaced, at some distance from diffuser; ideally fitted with dimmers to
control brightness strip lights (fluorescent or tungsten) attached to shelf ends inside
the case, illuminating both above and below a shelf; can only be used for objects with
no conservation risks
4. fluorescent lighting: behind case fascia panel (without diffusing panel separating light
from case interior); angles of vision must be calculated to avoid glare from light
source
5. vertical lighting (plan view): slim fluorescent tubes set in case corners, forming light
columns; suitable for wall cases with solid sides
6. fluorescent column (plan view): set behind case uprights; a possible solution for
lighting in old wall cases
7. side lighting (plan view): louvers essential to mask fluorescent tubes; accurate
calculation of light spread is needed to ensure even illumination on case back panel
8. Internal case lighting: slim lightbox for miniature fluorescent or incandescent lamps;
brightness at eye level should be carefully controlled; wiring to the lightbox, housed
in case corner, may be distracting.

48
4.2. CULTURAL PERFORMANCE
TYPES AND FORMS OF THEATRES
Spaces for drama (50 – 300+100)
Arena, Thrust, End stage, Flexible theatres
(Environmental, promenade, black box, and studio theatre),
Courtyard theatre
 Larger drama theatres (300 – 900+200)
Proscenium theatre, Thrust and open stage
Spaces for acoustic (unamplified) music, Recital hall (150 -800)
 Concert hall (1100 – 2000+200)
Shoebox concert hall, Vineyard concert hall, surround hall
 Spaces for opera and dance
Opera house (1200-2000+400)
Dance theatres (100 to 300)
 Multipurpose theatre (1,200 to 2,0400 +400)
 Multiform theatre
 paces for entertainment
 Spaces for media interaction

49
SEATING AND AISLE ARRANGEMENT
Figure 8 seating and aisle arrangement
AUDITORIUM
Seating density: (500x760)-(750x1400)
Area per seat: .38-3.05 sq. m
: Number of seats in a row: 22
Row to row spacing 300-850mm
Gangways: 1100mm min
SEATING CAPACITY
Very large 1500 or more
Large 900-1500
Medium 500-900
Small under 500
Incubator spaces 100 - 599
Presenting spaces 600 – 2000
SEATING LAYOUT
Slope floor
Fixed seating
Stagger
Aisles

50
VISUAL LIMITATIONS
Drama/Dance: 20 m
The angle of horizontal vision
For stationary head is 40 degree
CHANGING ROOMS LAYOUT
Space per person: 1.65 sq. m / person
Maximum tolerable downward
Sight line angle from balcony

51
4.3. LIBRARY
Standard workplace: 0.35-0.55 sq. m
Book issue and return: 5 sq. m/person
Information desk: 19-20 sq. m/person
Storage in 1000 volume stacks: 20-30 volumes/meter
Access per person: 4 sq. m
For 1000 volume reference books: 20-40 sq. m
Circulation route: 1.2 m
Spaces between shelves: 1.3-1.4m
Shelf height and Distance between tables
4.4. OFFICE ROOM
Floor height: 2.5-3m
Circulation: 15%
Avg. workstation floor: 12-15 sq. m
Min room size: 8-10 sq. m Workstation
layouts
Figure 8 height of shelvesFigure 9 Height of Shelves

52
4.5. TRAINING CLASS
Range: 80-120
Room size: 20-24 sq. ft. per student
Avg. height: 14-18 ft.
Practice Room: 20 sq. m
Classes for music
4.6. RETAILS
Max height of shelf: 1.8 m
Floor height: 3m
Min. width of a shop and Display shelf

53
4.7. RESTAURANT
Min table size: 40 x 60
Floor height: 2.5-3m
Window area: 1/10 of floor
Min walkways: 1.1m
Minimum width of service aisle 0.9-1.35m.
Waiter station 1 per 20-30 seats.
Dining area per seat: 1.5-2.15m2.
Kitchen area per seat 0.4-0.6m2.
Net kitchen area 15-25%.
Ratio of service area to total area ¼-1/2

54
5. CONTEXT STUDY

55
5.1. SETTLEMENT OF DHANKUTA
INTRODUCTION TO HISTORICAL LAND
As stated in ―Purwanchel ma Dhankuta‖, a book written by Tika Prasad Lamichanne.
Long time ago Dhankuta region was ruled by the Nagas currently residing as one of the
tribes in Northeast India. Some ancient ruin sites located in, Gahiri Gaun, Budhimorang
which is one of VDC in Dhankuta support this fact though the exact date could not be
known.
Prior to the unification of Nepal, Dhankuta was a part of Pallo Kirat. During the Malla
period, Nepal was divided into fragments known as Baise-Chaubese Rajya. The then
Dhankuta, was ruled over by Limbu rulers who had acquired position of Hang. In 1774
A.D. King Prithivi Narayan Shah took over the region, the 17 hillocks belonging to Pallo
Kirat were then administered by his majesty‘s government.
Settlement of Dhankuta bazaar is believed to be started from 400 years ago. The name is
given because of its geographical resembles with dhiki and okhal (place of rice biting).
Where ―dhan‖ means rice and ―kut" means to grind which combine to be Dhankuta
meaning a place like rice grinding.
The country was divided into 10 districts during the reign of king Rajendra Bikram Shah
and Prime Minister Bhimsen Thapa, in 1873 B.S, to help administration perform well.
According to the division, the region from the east of Dudhkoshi to the border of Mechi
was to be recognized as Chainpur-Dhankuta district.
In 1942 Bir Shamsher was entitled as the third Rana Prime Minister. During his rule the
number of districts grew from 10 to 32. The size of each district after this division was
fairly uniform and remained so until the dusk of Rana regime. In 20 hilly districts
Badahakims were the chief administrators. Among the twenty hilly districts Doti,
Dhankuta, Palpa were the most prioritized districts. In west, Palpa and Doti, and in east,
Dhankuta were established as headquarters. The Badahakim of Dhankuta was in charge
of 6 districts including Illam and Dhankuta. Dhankuta was a larger district then. Present-
day Tehrathum, Sankhuwasabha, Taplejung, Panchthar and Dhankuta, 5 districts,
together represent the then Dhankuta. In 2019 B.S. Nepal was divided into 14 zones and
75 districts and the bigger Dhankuta was divided into 5 divisions, 6 hillocks together
make the present Dhankuta.

56
It is not known that since when native people who are Athpahariya Rai came to settle in
Bhirgaun and spread over Dhankuta. Besides Athpahariya Rai there are Limbu and other
community groups of Rai. But the proper Bazaar which is seen now as Dhankuta Bazaar
densely settled by Newar community is only formed during the Rana period. Since then
present from had evolved.
SETTLEMENT
Dhankuta town is formed along the old trade route which runs through Koshi zone
linking Terai and Himalaya region. The settlement is compact and linearly arranged
along the street. The bazaar area runs down along the ridge sloping to south. The linear
nature of settlement makes the length of town running about 3 km length from Siran
bazaar to Sirwani. The area is divided into different units known as ‗tole‘ according to the
Part of street it faces. The linear bazaar area is made by Hulaktole, Biz bazaar, Thadoline
and Siran bazaar. While the sub streets joining with main street forms another tole such
as Tallo Kopche, Mathillo Kopche and Sarki tole.
ORIENTATION
Dhankuta Bazaar orients North-South. This ideal orientation has provided the settlement
area with ample amount of light and creating healthy environment. Proper bazaar area
from Siran bazaar, Biz bazaar, Hulaktole, Narwadeswor, Sirwani, Dada Gaun, Sarki tole
aligns from north to south. Whereas Tallo and Mathillo Kopche align east-west on the
steep slope which runs down.
STREETS AND SQUARE
The bazaar is so planned with streets and squares created at certain interval of rows of
houses. There are medium scale streets where it varies from double lane wide at the main
bazaar and single lane wide at sub-streets. Squares are formed at some interval marked by
open spaces with temple or pati. The formation of town follows the same pattern and
principle as in the Valley where squares are created to hold cultural and religious festivals
and also as communal spaces. Previously streets used to be stone paves though now they
are all black topped. The streets are also mostly reinforced with concrete due to erosion
seen on bitumen by steep slope and rain water.
The difference is topography which makes the settlement pattern look unique compared
to the settlement of The Valley. The streets are guided by topography of hills. For
example the streets of main bazaar of Hulaktole, Biz bazaar, Thado line and Siran bazaar
run along the top of hill. The streets also consist of squares in every 5 minutes walking
distance. These streets along the ridge of a hill where houses seems to be arranged

57
linearly on the side of street. And behind the houses runs the slope to east and west both
directions. This makes the urbanscape and architecture interesting because of variation in
levels. For example there are nice restaurants under the road and could never be seen
from street neither gets disturbed even its just an inches far from street. Because of
difference in level there are always great views that vary in each houses and levels of
streets and Chowks.
Madan chowk at Hulaktole is main chowk made by junction of three roads which links
proper bazaar area with other residential districts, villages on the south, the Bus Park and
Koshi highway. Moving north Madan chowk is followed by Chuwako Bot located at the
town centre which is another chowk marked by a Chuwa tree (a flowering tree known as
Magnolia). Nowadays these squares also contain badminton courts as seen in Tallo
Kopche. Main Chowks of bazaar like Chuwako Bot has become centre for outdoor
restaurants and cafes while Madan Chowk is commercially active area.
Figure 10 Hulaktole from madan chowk
Figure 11 Chuwako Bot
Figure 12 Pati with Table Tennis at one of square

58
PATTERNS OF BAZAAR SETTLEMENT:
Streets and square
Linear settlement align to north south
Settlement along ridge
Historical town
Streets and square
Pedestrianized city streets
5.2. NEWAR HOUSE IN DHANKUTA BAZAAR
Proper Dhankuta bazaar area is settled by Newar community since the formation of dense
settlement before 100 years According to settlement study done by NEC‘s students;
Newar houses constitute 20.65 % of the total houses in town. These houses are unique
with typical characteristics.
Newar houses are generally 2-3 storied. Ground floor is used for business or commercial
activities and living area while upper part serves for lounging. The walls are painted with
white clay (kamero). Jingati tiles are also seen in old houses belonging to the upper class
family. While old pictures taken by Architect David Dobereiner in 2o35 BS show normal
houses used to have thatch roof which now are all replaced by CGI sheet. Not a single
house in the bazar is seen with thatch roof today.
The Newari houses in Dhankuta shows balcony without Handrails. Visitor calls it
‗Balcony of oblivion‘ since it serves no other purpose than keeping few vessels and no
human is ever seen even when some of these balconies are updated with handrails.
The Newari houses in Dhankuta shows balcony without Handrails. Visitor calls it
Balcony of oblivion since it serve no purpose as it could but only holds keeping flower
vessels and no human is ever seen even they are updated with handrails. The houses are
painted in different colors and sometimes decorated with art forms too.

59
Figure 13 Newari house with balcony with vessels facing chowk
Figure 14 Newari house with traditional window

60
5.3. CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE
THE DHANKUTA CMA CAMPUS
Dhankuta is architecturally known for the work of British Architect David Dobereiner.
Figure 15 staff quarter (left) and amphitheater (right)
Unavoidably, in any discussion of conservation and development, issues arise that go
beyond the mere preservation of the physical environment or provision of new physical
facilities. The attempt to conserve a culture leads inexorably to change which may
actually threaten the survival of the culture. An outsider observing the beauty and
integrity of, say, a Tibetan village, may be tempted to say ―don‘t touch this leave it as it
is.‖ But casual observation does not disclose the fact that change are already taking place
and will continue to do so, regardless of the plans of developers. The Germane questions
are: In which direction will the change occur? At what rate? On whose initiative? For
whose benefit?
If conservation is valued and the need for change at the same time accepted, what criteria
should govern development in general, and the design of building projects in particular?
In the first place it seems axiomatic that large new buildings in any rural area should be
designed as far as possible, in the architectural ‗vernacular‘ of that area. In the case with
which I was involved as architect, the brief was to design a training centre for
community medical auxiliaries serving the eastern region. The very purpose of this
group of building was new and completely different form the functions served by the
other village buildings. The scale of it, as a single complex was incomparably larger than
anything in the village. Future users will not be locals and will not be locals and will be
drawn from different. Why then did I imagine that the buildings housing this completely
new phenomenon should look anything at all like the nearby village? After all its
function, users, its material, methods of construction and its scale are all new or different.
But precisely because it is so new and different, I thought, all the more reason then that it
should relate to its visual context in at least some ways. It does not it will surely alienate
most of the local population and will not be accepted, still welcomed and appreciated.

61
New building projects could suggest new image of, something the world has not yet seen,
but which it is beginning to shift towards: a decentralized, sustainable culture,
underpinned with a sophisticated and ecologically sound technology. By building
something new, genuinely new, not just a watered down version of current international
fashions, locals pride can be stimulated. Building appropriately adapted to their steep site
in the side of a bare mountain, incorporating reference to the local building tradition, but
transforming them to make a new statement can be a powerful instrument for stimulating
local pride.
DAVID POTTER RESIDENCE
The house is designed on modular unit. Hollow concrete block is the main building
material structured by beam and column. The spaces are determined by the units of
blocks and modular of window. The house also offers roof garden merging with natural
landscape as the house itself is built along the natural terraces. A wind turbine is
installed on the roof for generating electricity. Since the house is built on the hill blessed
with high wind speed, wind here is a source of energy but at the same time it creates
discomfort. Therefore timber panels are installed in windows which can be opened to
obstruct wind.
Houses in different period of time share same hierarchy of spaces. Here in Dhankuta the
vernacular houses of Athpahariya ethnic group which predates thousands of years. After
that traditional Newari houses are built in the same way as the traditional Newar houses
of the Valley but distinguish by kamero and red mud plaster and the balcony. The
balcony seems to be adapted as element of native houses of the Rai and the Limbu which
is for protection from rain and storing seasonal grains and vegetables. The balconies in
Newari houses are used solely for keeping flower pots. Contemporary houses even totally
different in appearance seems similar in spaces, scale and response to climate. These
houses are evolved along the course of history and they share same hierarchy of spaces
and material.
.
Figure 14 Residence of David PotterFigure 16 Residence of David Potter

62
5.4. SETTLEMENT OF ATHPAHARIYA VILLAGE
AND VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
SETTLEMENT
Athpahariya Rai has a folk belief that no
Athpahariya Rai should migrate to a place beyond
Sanguri Dada (the hilltop bordering Dhankuta and
Sunsari districts). The same reason has now
limited this population from moving to many
places of Dhankuta Municipality
including Dadagaun, Chharagaun, Sipting,
Pangsing, Tekunala, Santang, Karmitar, Thoka,
etc., and in Belahara and Bhirgaun VDCs of
Dhankuta district.
According to local people the original historical settlement of Athpahariya is said to be in
Bhirgaun. Topographically, these localities are in the altitude of 300 to 2000 meters
(3500‘-6500‘) above the sea level, where most of the landscape remains hilly
The village‘s ranges from ones consisting of 15-20 houses to those having 40-50 houses
with population of 100-300 people. These villages are approximately 15-20 minutes
walking distance apart and the houses are not clustered but spread apart in walking
distance of 8-10minutes. (Gautam & Magar 1994).
SETTLEMENT PATTERN
Settlement type of this community has dispersed and small semi compact pattern groups
of houses which are formed by members belonging to the same family. Since the lifestyle
is pervaded by agriculture the houses are found scattered specially at the edges of field
and small terraces between the large farming terraces.
The settlement is composed of scattered houses with garden surrounded by agricultural
fields, water spouts, pathways, chautari,i
and animal sheds. The natural slopes are cut to
make terraces for agriculture. The settlements are not intentionally planned but grown
organically within the territory. The villages are also generally surrounded by forests
which also feed wood which major source of fuel, timber, grass for livestock‘s.
Most of the religious shrines are located around the village but some are found near
rivulets, forests and hills. Kuwaii
is found generally below forest and ridges. Sometimes
water conduits brought form rivulets also serve for water supply. Cemeteries are found
near or inside forest area.
Figure 15 Houses at Bhirgaun
Figure 17 Houses at Bhirgaun

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