4. Traditional Knowledge
Temperament: Biologically based style of
interacting with world
Easy: regular, adaptable, mildly intense style
Difficult: intense, irregular, withdrawing style
Slow to warm up: need time to make transition
Goodness of fit: interaction of child’s
temperament with that of parents
5. Cross-cultural differences in temperament
Temperament: Biologically based style of
interacting with world
Easy: regular, adaptable, mildly intense style
Difficult: intense, irregular, withdrawing style
Slow to warm up: need time to make transition
Goodness of fit: interaction of child’s
temperament with that of parents
6. Cross-Cultural Studies on temperament
Differences in temperament
Chinese American babies
Japanese and Navajo babies
Cross-cultural studies using the Neonatal
Behavior Assessment Scale
Differences due to cultural practices of
caregiving, cultural goals for appropriate
behavior, cultural ideas on capabilities of babies
7. Cross-Cultural Studies on temperament
Temperament and learning culture
Differences in temperament may reflect cultural
values on appropriate ways of acting and being
The goodness of fit between temperament
and culture
“Difficult” temperament may be adaptive in one
culture
Need to interpret infant disposition and behavior
in cultural context
8. Cross-Cultural Studies on temperament
Sources behind temperamental differences
Cultural values, environmental demands, cultural
experiences (diet and culture-related
practices), physiological aspect of mother
10. Attachment: Special bond between infant and
caregiver
Provides child with emotional security
11. Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment
Infants must have preprogrammed, biological
basis for becoming attached to caregivers
Attachment is survival strategy
12. Ainsworth’s Classification System
of Attachment
Ainsworth’s study in Uganda
Three attachment styles:
secure, ambivalent, avoidant
Replicated in Baltimore
Similar distribution of attachment styles in other
cultures
But, in Dogon of Mali, no avoidant infants; in
Israel,more ambivalent babies
13. Cross-Cultural Studies on Attachment
Hundreds of studies on attachment conducted in
cultures all over the world
Weak association between parent sensitivity and
security of attachment
Cultures differ in conceptualization of sensitive
parenting
14. Cross-Cultural Validity of Assessing
Attachment
Meaning of Strange Situation
Meaning of separation different across different
cultures
ex) Japanese babies
Avoidant attachment as an indicator of
insecure attachment
Reliance on nonparental caregivers for Chinese
may account for avoidant attachment behavior
Subtle attachment behaviors difficult for coders
from different cultures
15. Is secure attachment a universal ideal?
In United States, secure attachment ideal
Some cultures differ in what is considered ideal
Ex) German mothers, Israeli children, Japanese
children
Nonetheless, many cultures consider secure
attachment ideal
16. Attachment and Child Development
Attachment predicts child competence and
health
Relationship between temperament and
attachment
More research needed in this area
18. Piaget’s Theory
Cognitive Development: How thinking skills
develop over time
Piaget’s theory based on observations of Swiss
children
Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
Preoperational stage: 2 to 6-7 years
Conservation, centration, irreversibility, egocentris
m, animism
Concrete operations stage: 6-7 to 11 years
Formal operations stage: 11 years to adulthood
19. Piaget’s Theory
Mechanisms for moving from one stage to
next
Assimilation: fitting new ideas into preexisting
understanding of world
Accommodation: changing one’s understanding
of world to accommodate ideas that conflict with
existing concepts
Piaget believed these stages are universal
20. Piaget’s Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Do Piaget’s stages occur in the same order
in different cultures?
Yes
Are the ages that Piaget associated with
each stage of development the same in all
cultures?
No, cultural variations exist (but children may
have potential to solve tasks sooner)
21. Piaget’s Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Are there variations within, rather than
between, Piaget’s stages?
Yes, cultural variations in order in which acquire
skills within one stage
Do non-Western cultures regard scientific
reasoning as the ultimate developmental end
point?
No
Ex) Islamic educational systems
22. Piaget’s Theory: Summary and Discussion
In some cultures, very few complete fourth-
stage Piagetian task
Cultural appropriateness of tasks
Skills being tested
Role of previous knowledge and cultural values
Universality of fourth stage has not been
demonstrated
23. Other Theories of Cognitive Development
Great divide theory
Separates Westerners from those in primitive
societies
Non-Westerners’ development seen as inferior
Justification of colonial imperialism, ethnocentric
Non-westerners also have ethnocentric
assumptions
25. Kohlberg’s Theory of Morality
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Preconventional morality: compliance with
rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards
Conventional morality: conformity to rules
defined by others’ approval or society’s rules
Postconventional morality: moral reasoning on
basis of individual principles and conscience
26. Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning
Cross-cultural studies suggest many aspects of
Kohlberg’s theory of morality are universal
Snarey (1985), Ma (1988)
Cross-cultural studies also raise questions about
universal generalizability of Kohlberg’s higher
stages
Cultural biases
Moral reasoning at higher stages is culture-
specific
27. Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning
Miller
Moralities of community
Moralities of divinity
29. Developmental research offer insights into
causes and contexts of ontogenesis of cultural
differences
Cross-cultural developmental research in many
areas such as future-oriented goals and
commitments, social expectations, affective and
romantic relationships in adolescence, etc.
30.
31. Universal:
Order of stages
Culture-specific:
Age of 3rd and 4th stage
Ex) Children who constantly move were better
accomplished spatial task sooner than
conservation task whereas children who had to
fetch water and store grain, they accomplished
grain task sooner
32. Culture-specific:
Importance of scientific reasoning
Ex) Islamic educational system: transmit
faith, general knowledge and appreciation for
poetry and literature
Reaching 4th stage