The document discusses various topics related to the data link layer, including:
- Data link control, error detection techniques like CRC, error correction using Hamming codes, and MAC protocols.
- Common LAN technologies like Ethernet, Token Ring, Token Bus, Wireless LAN, and Bluetooth.
- Networking devices that connect different networks like bridges, switches, routers, and gateways. Bridges connect segments at the data link layer while routers connect at the network layer.
- Ethernet standards including 10Base5, 10Base2, 10BaseT, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and 10Gbps Ethernet. Ethernet uses CSMA/CD for medium access.
- Token
functions of data link layer is flow control and error control.
Two categories of flow control:
Stop-and-wait
Send one frame at a time.
Sliding window
Send several frames at a time.
Hamming codes, like polynomial codes, are appended to the transmitted message
Hamming codes, unlike polynomial codes, contain the information necessary to locate a single bit error
In IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Data link layer is split into two sublayers:
Bottom part: MAC
The frame is called IEEE 802.3
Handles framing, MAC addressing, Medium Access control
PREAMBLE
8 bytes with pattern 10101010 used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates.
In IEEE 802.3, eighth byte is start of frame (10101011)
Addresses: 6 bytes (explained latter)
Type (DIX)
Indicates the type of the Network layer protocol being carried in the payload (data) field, mostly IP but others may be supported such as IP (0800), Novell IPX (8137) and AppleTalk (809B), ARP (0806) )
Allow multiple network layer protocols to be supported on a single machine
(multiplexing)
Its value starts at 0600h (=1536 in decimal)
Length (IEEE 802.3): number of bytes in the data field.
Maximum 1500 bytes (= 05DCh)
CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is discarded
CRC-32
Data: carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols
Pad: Zeros are added to the data field to make the minimum data length = 46 bytes
The document provides an overview of the data link layer. It discusses the functions of the data link layer including framing, flow control, and error detection. It describes various data link protocols like HDLC, PPP, Ethernet, and wireless LAN standards. It also covers topics like framing, MAC addressing, LLC, flow control mechanisms like stop-and-wait, and error detection techniques like CRC codes.
The document discusses several IEEE 802 standards for local and metropolitan area networks. It describes the purpose of IEEE 802 standards to define physical network interfaces and the lowest three layers of the network architecture. It provides details on some famous IEEE 802 standards including 802.2 (LLC), 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.4 (Token Bus), 802.5 (Token Ring), 802.6 (DQDB), and 802.11 (Wireless LAN). It then focuses on explaining the Ethernet, Token Bus and Token Ring standards in more depth including their frame formats and other specifications.
Switches create private collision domains and provide independent bandwidth on each port. Layer 2 switching provides hardware-based bridging using ASICs for wire speed and low latency switching at low cost. Switches learn MAC addresses by examining frames and make forwarding decisions based on layer 2 addresses, without modifying packets. Switches use the Spanning Tree Protocol to prevent network loops from occurring on redundant links while still allowing for redundancy.
The document discusses several IEEE 802 network standards including 802.1 for network management, 802.2 for the data link layer, 802.3 for Ethernet, 802.4 for token bus networks, 802.5 for token ring networks, and 802.6 for metropolitan area networks. It also covers the OSI model and its seven layers, common network topologies, the TCP/IP model, and other networking concepts such as encapsulation, addressing, and types of data transmission.
This document provides an overview of Ethernet and Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) concepts. It describes the operation of the Ethernet sublayers including the logical link control (LLC) and media access control (MAC) sublayers. It explains how ARP works to resolve IP addresses to MAC addresses through ARP requests and maintaining an ARP table. It also discusses how ARP entries can be removed from the ARP table over time or manually.
The data link layer provides services like error detection and correction to the network layer. It deals with issues like framing, flow control, and error handling when transmitting data frames between devices. Flow control mechanisms like stop-and-wait and sliding window are used to regulate frame transmission rates to prevent the receiver from being overwhelmed. Stop-and-wait allows sending one frame at a time while sliding window allows sending a fixed number of frames before needing an acknowledgment, improving efficiency over stop-and-wait. The data link layer frames network layer packets for transmission and handles issues like framing the data, detecting and correcting errors, and implementing flow control.
The data link layer transforms the physical layer into a link responsible for node-to-node communication. It provides framing, addressing, error control, and flow control. Specific responsibilities include grouping bits into frames, adding addressing and error detection through checksums, and preventing fast senders from overwhelming slow receivers through flow control. Data link protocols must provide well-defined interfaces, handle transmission errors, and regulate data flow. They offer services like unacknowledged connectionless, acknowledged connectionless, and acknowledged connection-oriented to transfer data reliably between nodes.
functions of data link layer is flow control and error control.
Two categories of flow control:
Stop-and-wait
Send one frame at a time.
Sliding window
Send several frames at a time.
Hamming codes, like polynomial codes, are appended to the transmitted message
Hamming codes, unlike polynomial codes, contain the information necessary to locate a single bit error
In IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Data link layer is split into two sublayers:
Bottom part: MAC
The frame is called IEEE 802.3
Handles framing, MAC addressing, Medium Access control
PREAMBLE
8 bytes with pattern 10101010 used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates.
In IEEE 802.3, eighth byte is start of frame (10101011)
Addresses: 6 bytes (explained latter)
Type (DIX)
Indicates the type of the Network layer protocol being carried in the payload (data) field, mostly IP but others may be supported such as IP (0800), Novell IPX (8137) and AppleTalk (809B), ARP (0806) )
Allow multiple network layer protocols to be supported on a single machine
(multiplexing)
Its value starts at 0600h (=1536 in decimal)
Length (IEEE 802.3): number of bytes in the data field.
Maximum 1500 bytes (= 05DCh)
CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is discarded
CRC-32
Data: carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols
Pad: Zeros are added to the data field to make the minimum data length = 46 bytes
The document provides an overview of the data link layer. It discusses the functions of the data link layer including framing, flow control, and error detection. It describes various data link protocols like HDLC, PPP, Ethernet, and wireless LAN standards. It also covers topics like framing, MAC addressing, LLC, flow control mechanisms like stop-and-wait, and error detection techniques like CRC codes.
The document discusses several IEEE 802 standards for local and metropolitan area networks. It describes the purpose of IEEE 802 standards to define physical network interfaces and the lowest three layers of the network architecture. It provides details on some famous IEEE 802 standards including 802.2 (LLC), 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.4 (Token Bus), 802.5 (Token Ring), 802.6 (DQDB), and 802.11 (Wireless LAN). It then focuses on explaining the Ethernet, Token Bus and Token Ring standards in more depth including their frame formats and other specifications.
Switches create private collision domains and provide independent bandwidth on each port. Layer 2 switching provides hardware-based bridging using ASICs for wire speed and low latency switching at low cost. Switches learn MAC addresses by examining frames and make forwarding decisions based on layer 2 addresses, without modifying packets. Switches use the Spanning Tree Protocol to prevent network loops from occurring on redundant links while still allowing for redundancy.
The document discusses several IEEE 802 network standards including 802.1 for network management, 802.2 for the data link layer, 802.3 for Ethernet, 802.4 for token bus networks, 802.5 for token ring networks, and 802.6 for metropolitan area networks. It also covers the OSI model and its seven layers, common network topologies, the TCP/IP model, and other networking concepts such as encapsulation, addressing, and types of data transmission.
This document provides an overview of Ethernet and Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) concepts. It describes the operation of the Ethernet sublayers including the logical link control (LLC) and media access control (MAC) sublayers. It explains how ARP works to resolve IP addresses to MAC addresses through ARP requests and maintaining an ARP table. It also discusses how ARP entries can be removed from the ARP table over time or manually.
The data link layer provides services like error detection and correction to the network layer. It deals with issues like framing, flow control, and error handling when transmitting data frames between devices. Flow control mechanisms like stop-and-wait and sliding window are used to regulate frame transmission rates to prevent the receiver from being overwhelmed. Stop-and-wait allows sending one frame at a time while sliding window allows sending a fixed number of frames before needing an acknowledgment, improving efficiency over stop-and-wait. The data link layer frames network layer packets for transmission and handles issues like framing the data, detecting and correcting errors, and implementing flow control.
The data link layer transforms the physical layer into a link responsible for node-to-node communication. It provides framing, addressing, error control, and flow control. Specific responsibilities include grouping bits into frames, adding addressing and error detection through checksums, and preventing fast senders from overwhelming slow receivers through flow control. Data link protocols must provide well-defined interfaces, handle transmission errors, and regulate data flow. They offer services like unacknowledged connectionless, acknowledged connectionless, and acknowledged connection-oriented to transfer data reliably between nodes.
This document provides an overview of the data link layer and media access control. It discusses topics like link-layer addressing, data link layer protocols, framing, error control, flow control, and common data link layer protocols. It provides examples of finite state machines to illustrate the simple protocol and stop-and-wait protocol. Key points covered include how framing separates messages, the use of bit stuffing to avoid flag patterns in data, flow control using buffers, and acknowledgments for error control.
This document summarizes key concepts about the data link layer. It discusses the services provided to the network layer including unacknowledged connectionless service, acknowledged connectionless service, and acknowledged connection-oriented service. It describes framing, including frame structure with header, payload, and trailer. Error control using Automatic Repeat Request and flow control are explained. Stop-and-wait and sliding window protocols are given as examples of error control and flow control mechanisms.
This document summarizes key concepts about the data link layer. It discusses the services provided to the network layer including unacknowledged connectionless service, acknowledged connectionless service, and acknowledged connection-oriented service. It describes framing, including frame structure with header, payload, and trailer. Error control using Automatic Repeat Request and flow control are explained. Frame types can be fixed-sized or variable-sized, using techniques like length field or end delimiter. The advantages of framing are also provided.
Jaimin chp-3 - data-link layer- 2011 batchJaimin Jani
The document discusses data link layer services and functions including:
1. Providing interfaces between network layers and framing/error control/flow control.
2. Types of services include unacknowledged/acknowledged connectionless and connection-oriented.
3. Framing methods like character count, flag bytes, and encoding violations are used to delineate frames. Error control uses acknowledgments, timers, and sequence numbers.
Robert Metcalfe developed Ethernet in 1973 to connect hundreds of computers over a building-wide network using coaxial cable transmitting data at 3 Mbits/second. In 1975, Xerox patented Ethernet listing Metcalfe as an inventor. In 1981, 3COM built the first 10 Mbit/sec Ethernet adapter and in the late 1980s twisted pair cables started replacing coaxial cables for Ethernet networks.
The document provides an overview of the data link layer (DLL). It discusses how the DLL transforms the physical layer into a link responsible for node-to-node communication. The DLL is responsible for framing, addressing, flow control, error control, and media access control. It provides services like transferring data packets between network layers on different machines with options for unacknowledged connectionless, acknowledged connectionless, and acknowledged connection-oriented services. Key DLL functions include framing data into frames, error control using acknowledgements and retransmissions, and flow control to regulate data transmission rates.
Ethernet protocols refer to the family of local-area network (LAN) standards covered by IEEE 802.3. Ethernet networks can operate in either half-duplex or full-duplex mode and support data rates of 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1000 Mbps, and 10 Gbps. The basic elements of an Ethernet system are the physical medium, medium access control rules, and Ethernet frames. Ethernet frames contain fields for source and destination addresses, length/type, data, and error checking.
The key difference between distributed and uniprocessor systems is interprocess communication in distributed systems. The OSI model defines layers for networking including physical, data link, network, transport, and application layers. Remote Procedure Call (RPC) allows calling procedures on remote systems similarly to local calls by marshalling parameters and results. Group communication enables one-to-many and one-to-all communication using multicast and broadcast. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) networks use fixed size cells over virtual circuits to efficiently support both constant and bursty network traffic.
The document provides an overview of industrial networking concepts, including:
- Physical layers like fiber, copper, wireless and their considerations in tough industrial environments.
- OSI model layers and how data is packetized and transmitted.
- Layer 2 switching concepts such as MAC addressing, VLANs, and protocols to prevent broadcast storms.
- Layer 3 concepts including IP addressing, subnetting, routing, firewalls, and the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
Frame Relay is a virtual circuit wide-area network technology designed in the late 1980s that operates at the physical and data link layers. It allows for bursty data transmission and higher transmission speeds than traditional WANs. Frame Relay uses virtual circuits identified by a Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI) to transmit data between nodes. It supports both permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) and switched virtual circuits (SVCs). Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that transmits data in fixed length cells over virtual paths and circuits to provide connection-oriented services between endpoints.
Can network development using arm cortex m3Ankur Rastogi
The document provides an overview of Controller Area Network (CAN) network development. It discusses CAN protocol fundamentals including layers, frames, error handling, and physical implementation. It also outlines hands-on exercises for CAN programming on Cortex-M3 boards, sending data over CAN networks, and analyzing CAN traffic using tools like CANalyzer and BUSMASTER.
Can network development using arm cortex m3Ankur Rastogi
The document provides an overview of Controller Area Network (CAN) network development. It discusses CAN protocol fundamentals including layers, frames, arbitration, error detection, and physical implementation. It also outlines hands-on exercises for CAN communication using Cortex-M3 programming and analyzing CAN data with tools like BUSMASTER and CANalyzer.
This document discusses ATM basics for WCDMA networks. It describes the different network transfer modes including synchronous transfer mode, packet transfer mode, and asynchronous transfer mode. Asynchronous transfer mode is highlighted as a compromise that supports voice, video, and data over WCDMA networks by providing quality of service guarantees. Key aspects of ATM like cells, virtual paths, virtual connections, and service classes are defined. The document also outlines why ATM is used as the transport protocol in 3G networks.
This document discusses ATM basics for WCDMA networks. It describes the different network transfer modes including synchronous transfer mode, packet transfer mode, and asynchronous transfer mode. Asynchronous transfer mode is highlighted as a compromise that supports voice, video, and data over WCDMA networks by providing quality of service guarantees. Key aspects of ATM like cells, virtual paths, virtual connections, and service classes are defined. The document also outlines why ATM is used as the transport protocol in 3G networks.
The document provides sample exam questions for CCNA Exploration 4.0 related to LAN switching and wireless networking. Specifically:
- The questions cover topics such as VLAN configuration, trunking, switch port security, the OSI model, hierarchical network design, and Ethernet switching functions.
- Multiple choice answers are provided for each question to test understanding of networking concepts and configuration.
So in summary, the document appears to be practice exam questions for a CCNA certification focusing on layer 2 switching and wireless LAN technologies.
Ensure that only reliable networks are set up in your systems by listening to our short Webinar teaching you all about the basics of industrial ethernet communications and computer networking. Starting from the ground up, this presentation covers the basics of how network connections work, and how one computer talks to another.
artificial intelligence and data science contents.pptxGauravCar
What is artificial intelligence? Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks that are commonly associated with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason.
› ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) | Definitio
This document provides an overview of the data link layer and media access control. It discusses topics like link-layer addressing, data link layer protocols, framing, error control, flow control, and common data link layer protocols. It provides examples of finite state machines to illustrate the simple protocol and stop-and-wait protocol. Key points covered include how framing separates messages, the use of bit stuffing to avoid flag patterns in data, flow control using buffers, and acknowledgments for error control.
This document summarizes key concepts about the data link layer. It discusses the services provided to the network layer including unacknowledged connectionless service, acknowledged connectionless service, and acknowledged connection-oriented service. It describes framing, including frame structure with header, payload, and trailer. Error control using Automatic Repeat Request and flow control are explained. Stop-and-wait and sliding window protocols are given as examples of error control and flow control mechanisms.
This document summarizes key concepts about the data link layer. It discusses the services provided to the network layer including unacknowledged connectionless service, acknowledged connectionless service, and acknowledged connection-oriented service. It describes framing, including frame structure with header, payload, and trailer. Error control using Automatic Repeat Request and flow control are explained. Frame types can be fixed-sized or variable-sized, using techniques like length field or end delimiter. The advantages of framing are also provided.
Jaimin chp-3 - data-link layer- 2011 batchJaimin Jani
The document discusses data link layer services and functions including:
1. Providing interfaces between network layers and framing/error control/flow control.
2. Types of services include unacknowledged/acknowledged connectionless and connection-oriented.
3. Framing methods like character count, flag bytes, and encoding violations are used to delineate frames. Error control uses acknowledgments, timers, and sequence numbers.
Robert Metcalfe developed Ethernet in 1973 to connect hundreds of computers over a building-wide network using coaxial cable transmitting data at 3 Mbits/second. In 1975, Xerox patented Ethernet listing Metcalfe as an inventor. In 1981, 3COM built the first 10 Mbit/sec Ethernet adapter and in the late 1980s twisted pair cables started replacing coaxial cables for Ethernet networks.
The document provides an overview of the data link layer (DLL). It discusses how the DLL transforms the physical layer into a link responsible for node-to-node communication. The DLL is responsible for framing, addressing, flow control, error control, and media access control. It provides services like transferring data packets between network layers on different machines with options for unacknowledged connectionless, acknowledged connectionless, and acknowledged connection-oriented services. Key DLL functions include framing data into frames, error control using acknowledgements and retransmissions, and flow control to regulate data transmission rates.
Ethernet protocols refer to the family of local-area network (LAN) standards covered by IEEE 802.3. Ethernet networks can operate in either half-duplex or full-duplex mode and support data rates of 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1000 Mbps, and 10 Gbps. The basic elements of an Ethernet system are the physical medium, medium access control rules, and Ethernet frames. Ethernet frames contain fields for source and destination addresses, length/type, data, and error checking.
The key difference between distributed and uniprocessor systems is interprocess communication in distributed systems. The OSI model defines layers for networking including physical, data link, network, transport, and application layers. Remote Procedure Call (RPC) allows calling procedures on remote systems similarly to local calls by marshalling parameters and results. Group communication enables one-to-many and one-to-all communication using multicast and broadcast. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) networks use fixed size cells over virtual circuits to efficiently support both constant and bursty network traffic.
The document provides an overview of industrial networking concepts, including:
- Physical layers like fiber, copper, wireless and their considerations in tough industrial environments.
- OSI model layers and how data is packetized and transmitted.
- Layer 2 switching concepts such as MAC addressing, VLANs, and protocols to prevent broadcast storms.
- Layer 3 concepts including IP addressing, subnetting, routing, firewalls, and the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
Frame Relay is a virtual circuit wide-area network technology designed in the late 1980s that operates at the physical and data link layers. It allows for bursty data transmission and higher transmission speeds than traditional WANs. Frame Relay uses virtual circuits identified by a Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI) to transmit data between nodes. It supports both permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) and switched virtual circuits (SVCs). Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that transmits data in fixed length cells over virtual paths and circuits to provide connection-oriented services between endpoints.
Can network development using arm cortex m3Ankur Rastogi
The document provides an overview of Controller Area Network (CAN) network development. It discusses CAN protocol fundamentals including layers, frames, error handling, and physical implementation. It also outlines hands-on exercises for CAN programming on Cortex-M3 boards, sending data over CAN networks, and analyzing CAN traffic using tools like CANalyzer and BUSMASTER.
Can network development using arm cortex m3Ankur Rastogi
The document provides an overview of Controller Area Network (CAN) network development. It discusses CAN protocol fundamentals including layers, frames, arbitration, error detection, and physical implementation. It also outlines hands-on exercises for CAN communication using Cortex-M3 programming and analyzing CAN data with tools like BUSMASTER and CANalyzer.
This document discusses ATM basics for WCDMA networks. It describes the different network transfer modes including synchronous transfer mode, packet transfer mode, and asynchronous transfer mode. Asynchronous transfer mode is highlighted as a compromise that supports voice, video, and data over WCDMA networks by providing quality of service guarantees. Key aspects of ATM like cells, virtual paths, virtual connections, and service classes are defined. The document also outlines why ATM is used as the transport protocol in 3G networks.
This document discusses ATM basics for WCDMA networks. It describes the different network transfer modes including synchronous transfer mode, packet transfer mode, and asynchronous transfer mode. Asynchronous transfer mode is highlighted as a compromise that supports voice, video, and data over WCDMA networks by providing quality of service guarantees. Key aspects of ATM like cells, virtual paths, virtual connections, and service classes are defined. The document also outlines why ATM is used as the transport protocol in 3G networks.
The document provides sample exam questions for CCNA Exploration 4.0 related to LAN switching and wireless networking. Specifically:
- The questions cover topics such as VLAN configuration, trunking, switch port security, the OSI model, hierarchical network design, and Ethernet switching functions.
- Multiple choice answers are provided for each question to test understanding of networking concepts and configuration.
So in summary, the document appears to be practice exam questions for a CCNA certification focusing on layer 2 switching and wireless LAN technologies.
Ensure that only reliable networks are set up in your systems by listening to our short Webinar teaching you all about the basics of industrial ethernet communications and computer networking. Starting from the ground up, this presentation covers the basics of how network connections work, and how one computer talks to another.
artificial intelligence and data science contents.pptxGauravCar
What is artificial intelligence? Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks that are commonly associated with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason.
› ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) | Definitio
Discover the latest insights on Data Driven Maintenance with our comprehensive webinar presentation. Learn about traditional maintenance challenges, the right approach to utilizing data, and the benefits of adopting a Data Driven Maintenance strategy. Explore real-world examples, industry best practices, and innovative solutions like FMECA and the D3M model. This presentation, led by expert Jules Oudmans, is essential for asset owners looking to optimize their maintenance processes and leverage digital technologies for improved efficiency and performance. Download now to stay ahead in the evolving maintenance landscape.
Comparative analysis between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquapon...bijceesjournal
The aquaponic system of planting is a method that does not require soil usage. It is a method that only needs water, fish, lava rocks (a substitute for soil), and plants. Aquaponic systems are sustainable and environmentally friendly. Its use not only helps to plant in small spaces but also helps reduce artificial chemical use and minimizes excess water use, as aquaponics consumes 90% less water than soil-based gardening. The study applied a descriptive and experimental design to assess and compare conventional and reconstructed aquaponic methods for reproducing tomatoes. The researchers created an observation checklist to determine the significant factors of the study. The study aims to determine the significant difference between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquaponics systems propagating tomatoes in terms of height, weight, girth, and number of fruits. The reconstructed aquaponics system’s higher growth yield results in a much more nourished crop than the traditional aquaponics system. It is superior in its number of fruits, height, weight, and girth measurement. Moreover, the reconstructed aquaponics system is proven to eliminate all the hindrances present in the traditional aquaponics system, which are overcrowding of fish, algae growth, pest problems, contaminated water, and dead fish.
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning an...gerogepatton
International Conference on NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Applications (NLAIM 2024) offers a premier global platform for exchanging insights and findings in the theory, methodology, and applications of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their applications. The conference seeks substantial contributions across all key domains of NLP, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and their practical applications, aiming to foster both theoretical advancements and real-world implementations. With a focus on facilitating collaboration between researchers and practitioners from academia and industry, the conference serves as a nexus for sharing the latest developments in the field.
Use PyCharm for remote debugging of WSL on a Windo cf5c162d672e4e58b4dde5d797...shadow0702a
This document serves as a comprehensive step-by-step guide on how to effectively use PyCharm for remote debugging of the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) on a local Windows machine. It meticulously outlines several critical steps in the process, starting with the crucial task of enabling permissions, followed by the installation and configuration of WSL.
The guide then proceeds to explain how to set up the SSH service within the WSL environment, an integral part of the process. Alongside this, it also provides detailed instructions on how to modify the inbound rules of the Windows firewall to facilitate the process, ensuring that there are no connectivity issues that could potentially hinder the debugging process.
The document further emphasizes on the importance of checking the connection between the Windows and WSL environments, providing instructions on how to ensure that the connection is optimal and ready for remote debugging.
It also offers an in-depth guide on how to configure the WSL interpreter and files within the PyCharm environment. This is essential for ensuring that the debugging process is set up correctly and that the program can be run effectively within the WSL terminal.
Additionally, the document provides guidance on how to set up breakpoints for debugging, a fundamental aspect of the debugging process which allows the developer to stop the execution of their code at certain points and inspect their program at those stages.
Finally, the document concludes by providing a link to a reference blog. This blog offers additional information and guidance on configuring the remote Python interpreter in PyCharm, providing the reader with a well-rounded understanding of the process.
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
1. UNIT II DATA LINK LAYER
Data link control – Error Detection – VRC
– LRC – CRC – Checksum – Error
Correction – Hamming Codes – MAC –
Ethernet, Token ring , Token Bus –
Wireless LAN - Bluetooth – Bridges.
3. OVERVIEW
• Data Link Control
• Error Detection
• VRC
• LRC
• CRC
• Checksum
• Error Correction
• Hamming Codes
• MAC
• Ethernet
• Token ring
• Token Bus
• Wireless LAN
• Bluetooth
• Bridges
4. Data Link Control
Communication
Minimum 2 devices are needed for data
communication. So line discipline is necessary
for co-operation b/w2 devices.
The 2 important functions of data link layer
is flow control and error control.This
functions are otherwise called as Data link
control.
5. LineDiscipline
It coordinates the link system
It is done in 2 ways
◦ ENQ (Enquiry)
Used in peer – peercommunication
Enquire whether there is arequired link b/w
two devices
Check whether theintended deviceis capableto receive
◦ ACK (Acknowledgment)
Used in Primary secondary communication
The intended devicewillacknowledge aboutits status to the
receiver
8. Select
It is a line discipline used in topologies
with primary secondary relationship.
Select
It is uses whenever the primary device
has something to send.ie)Primary
controls the link.
11. Poll
The polling function is used by the
primary device to Select transmissions
from the secondary devices.
If the primary device is ready to receive
data , It ask each device in turn if it has
anything to send.
13. Flow Control
It is a set of procedures to tell the sender
how much data it can transmit before it must
wait for an acknowledgement from the
receiver.
T
wo categories of flow control:
◦ Stop-and-wait
Send one frame at a time.
◦ Sliding window
Send several frames at a time.
16. Stop-and-wait
Advantages:
◦ Simplicity.
◦ Each frame is checked and acknowledged
before the next frame is sent.
Disadvantages:
◦ Slow.
Can addsignificantlyto thetotaltransmission time
ifthe distance betweendevices is long.
◦ Inefficiency
Each frame is alone on the line.
17. SlidingWindow
Sender can send several frames before
needing an acknowledgement.
Advantages:
◦ The link can carry several frames at once.
◦ Its capacity can be used efficiently.
22. Can detect all single-bit errors. Can detect burst errors only if the total
number of errors in each data unit is odd.
Even number of ones
–add 0
Odd number of ones
– add 1
23. •Increases the likelihood of detecting burst errors.
•n bits LRC can detect a burst error of n bits.
•Errors may be undetected if:
•Have even number of errors in that position.
24.
25.
26. You will experience a painful
sharpening from time to time, but
this is required if you are to become
a better pencil.
30. Hamming Codes-Error correction
Hamming codes, like polynomial codes,
are appended to the transmitted message
Hamming codes, unlike polynomial codes,
contain the information necessary to
locate asingle bit error
31. CalculatingtheHamming Code
The keyto theHamming Code is theuse of extra paritybits to allow the
identificationof asingle error
. Create the code word as follows:
◦ Mark allbitpositions thatare powers of two asparitybits.(positions 1,2,4,8, 16,
32, 64,etc.)
◦ All other bitpositions are for thedatato beencoded.(positions 3,5,6,7,9,10,
11,12,13,14,15,17,etc.)
◦ Eachparitybitcalculatestheparityfor some of thebitsinthecode word.The
position oftheparitybitdetermines thesequence ofbitsthatitalternately
checks and skips.
Position 1:check 1 bit,skip 1 bit,check 1 bit,skip 1 bit,etc.(1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,...)
Position 2:check 2 bits,skip 2 bits,check 2 bits,skip 2 bits,etc.
(2,3,6,7,10,11,14,15,...)
Position 4:check 4 bits,skip 4 bits,check 4 bits,skip 4 bits,etc.
(4,5,6,7,12,13,14,15,20,21,22,23,...)
Position 8:check 8 bits,skip 8 bits,check 8 bits,skip 8bits,etc.(8-15,24-31,40-
47,...)
Position 16:check 16 bits,skip 16 bits,check 16 bits,skip 16 bits,etc.(16-31,48-
63,80-95,...)
Position 32:check 32 bits,skip 32 bits,check 32 bits,skip 32 bits,etc.(32-63,96-
127,160-191,...)
etc.
◦ Setaparitybitto 1 ifthetotalnumberof ones inthepositions itchecksis odd.
Set aparity bit to 0 ifthe total number of ones in the positions itchecks is even.
40. MAC
IEEE has subdivided(Project 802) the data
link layer into two sub layers:
◦ Logical Link Control
◦ Medium access control
Functions of MAC
It resolves the contention of shared media
It contains allinformation to move information
from one place to another
It containsthephysicaladdress of next station
to route packet.
MAC protocol are specific to LAN
41. The project 802 which governs internet working. Here each
subdivision is identified by a number
802.1(internetworking)
802.2(LLC)
and MAC modules
802.3(CSMA/CD)
802.4(Tokenbus)
802.5(Tokenring)
43. MAC protocol arespecifictoLAN
LAN is aLocalArea Network used for
communication inside building
Protocols for LAN are,
◦ Ethernet
◦ T
oken Ring
◦ T
oken bus
◦ FDDI
44. IEEE STANDARDS
Ethernet: It is a LAN protocol that is used in Bus and Star topologiesand
implements CSMA/CD as the medium access method
Original (traditional) Ethernet developed in 1980 by
three companies: Digital, Intel, Xerox (DIX).
In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a
project, called Project 802, to set standards to enable
intercommunication among equipment from a variety of
manufacturers.
Current version is called IEEE Ethernet
45. ◦ IEEE 802.3supports LAN standardEthernet
◦ IEEE802.3 defines two categories
Baseband
Broadband
◦ Base band has fivedifferent category
10Base5
10Base2
10BaseT
1Base5 etc.,
◦ Broad band has a category
10Broad36
46. Access Method:CSMA/CD
When multiple user access the single line ,there is a
danger of signals overlapping and destroying each
other(T
raffic) .such anoverlap is called Collisions.
T
o avoid this the access method used in Ethernet is
carrier sense multiple access/collision detection
In CSMA any workstation wishing to transmit must
listento existingtrafficon the line
Ifno voltageis detected,lineis considered idle
CSMA cuts down the number of collisions, but cant
eliminate. Collisions still occur if both station try to
listen ata time.
48. IEEE Ethernet
In IEEE 802.3EthernetData linklayerissplitintotwo sublayers:
◦ Bottom part:MAC
The frame is called IEEE 802.3
Handles framing,MAC addressing,MediumAccess control
Specific implementation for each LAN protocol
Defines CSMA/CD as theaccess method for EthernetLANs
and Token passing
method for Token Ring.
Implemented in hardware
◦ Toppart:LLC (LogicalLinkControl)
The subframe is called IEEE 802.2
Provides error and flow control ifneeded
It makes the MAC sublayer transparent
Allows interconnectivitybetween different LANs datalink layers
Used to multiplex multiplenetwork layerprotocols in thedatalink
layer
frame
Implemented in software
49. Ethernet Provides Unreliable, connectionless Service
◦ Ethernet data link layer protocol provides
connectionless service to the network layer
No handshaking between sending and receiving
adapter.
◦ Ethernet protocol provides Unreliable service to the
network layer :
Receiving adapter doesn’t sendACK or NAK to
sending adapter
This means stream of datagrams passed to network
layer can have gaps (missing data)
Gaps will be filled if application is using reliable transport layer
protocol
Otherwise, application will see the gaps
51. Ethernet Frame
PREAMBLE
◦ 8 bytes with pattern 10101010 used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates.
◦ In IEEE 802.3, eighth byte is start of frame (10101011)
Addresses: 6 bytes (explained latter)
Type (DIX)
◦ Indicates the type of the Network layer protocol being carried in the payload
(data) field, mostly IP but others may be supported such as IP (0800), Novell IPX
(8137) andAppleTalk (809B),ARP (0806) )
◦ Allow multiple network layer protocols to be supported on a single machine
(multiplexing)
◦ Its value starts at 0600h (=1536 in decimal)
Length (IEEE 802.3): number of bytes in the data field.
◦ Maximum 1500 bytes (= 05DCh)
CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is discarded
◦ CRC-32
Data: carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols
Pad: Zeros are added to the data field to make the minimum data length = 46 bytes
52. Ethernet address
Six bytes = 48 bits
Flat address not hierarchical
Burned into the NIC ROM
First three bytes from left specify the vendor. Cisco 00-00-
0C, 3Com 02-60-8C and the last 24 bit should be created
uniquely by the company
DestinationAddress canbe:
Unicast: second digit from left is even (one recipient)
Multicast: Second digit from left is odd (group of stations
to receive the frame – conferencing applications)
Broadcast (ALL ones) (all stations receive theframe)
Source address is always Unicast
61. Fast Ethernet
100 Mbps transmission rate
same frame format, media access, and collision
detection rules as 10 Mbps Ethernet
can combine 10 Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
on same network using a switch
media: twisted pair (CAT5) or fiber optic cable
(no coax)
Star-wire topology
◦ Similar to 10BASE-T
CAT 3
CAT 5
65. In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit Ethernet,
there is no collision;
the maximum length of the cable is
determined by the signal attenuation
in the cable.
67. 10Gbps Ethernet
Maximum link distances cover 300 m to 40 km
Full-duplex mode only
No CSMA/CD
Uses optical fiber only
68. TokenRing
It allows each station to sent one frame
.
The access control mechanism used by
Ethernet is inefficient sometimes because
of collision.
It solves the collision problem by passing
token
Initially astation waits for token, ifa
token is free the station maysend adata
frame
69. Cont..,
This frame proceeds around the ring ,being
regenerated by each station .Eachstation
examines the destination address finds the
frameis addressed to another station andrelays
it to its neighbor
.
The intended recipient recognizes its own
address and copies the message and set the
address bit
The token finallyreach the sender and it
recognizes that the data is delivered through
address bit
T
oken is passed from NIC to NIC
72. FDDI
• Fiber Distributed Data Interface
• local area network protocol standardized by ANSI
• 100-Mbps token passing
• Dual-ring LAN
• A high-speed backbone technology
• High bandwidth
• Optical fiber transmission
• Allows up to 1000 stations
74. Components of FDDI
• Fiber optic cable
• A concentrator (ring)
• Stations: 2 types
• DAS (DualAttachment Station) or Class
A:
• Connected to both the rings
• SAS (SingleAttachment Station) or Class
B:
• Connected to primary ring
76. Networking andinternetworking
devices:
An internet is ainterconnection of
individualnetwork. So to create ainternet
we need ainternetworking devices. ie)
Linking anumber ofLAN’s
Internet -WWW
internet-Interconnectionof LAN
77. Why Interconnect?
• Toseparate / connect one corporate division with another.
• Toconnect two LANs with differentprotocols.
• T
oconnect a LAN to the Internet.
• Tobreak a LAN into segments to relieve traffic congestion.
• Toprovide a security wall between two different types ofusers.
79. Introduction
•Many times it is necessary to connect a local area network to anotherlocal
area network or to a wide area network.
•Local area network to local area network connections are usually performed
with a bridge.
•Local area network to wide area network connections are usually performed
with a router.
•A third device, the switch, can be used to interconnect segmentsof a local
area network.
81. Repeater:
A repeater is aregenerator
, not an
amplifier
A repeater installed on alink receives the
signal before it becomes too weak or
corrupted ,regenerates the original bit
pattern, and put the refreshed copy back
onto the link.
84. 105
/ 25
Bridges
Divide alargenetwork into smaller segment
It filters the traffic . It contains logic(Bridge
table) that allows them to keep the traffic for
each segment separate.
Ie) Isolatingandcontrolling the link problems
(e.g.congestion)
Bridges have look-up table that contains physical
address of every station connected to it.
89. SimpleBridge
It is aless expensive type of bridge
It links 2 segments (LANS) and lists the
address of all the stations in table
included in each of them.
Here address must be entered manually.
The table is modified when stations are
added and removed.
90. Multiport Bridge
It is used to connect more thantwo LANS.
So the bridge has 3 tables.
Here address must be entered manually
T
ransparent Bridge:
• A transparent or learning bridge builds its table of
station on its own (automatically).
• The table is empty when it is installed, it builds its table
when it encounters the packet for transmission. It
uses thesource address for buildingtable.
• It identifies the changes and update the table when
system moved from one station to another
92. Cont.,
Bridges are normally installed
redundantly,that is two LANS may be
connected by more than one bridge.in
this cases they maycreate a loop.
So packet may go round and round,It can
be avoided by algorithms like
◦ Spannig tree algorithm
◦ Source routing
94. Data Communications and Computer Networks
Remote Bridges
•A remote bridge is capable of passing a data frame
from one local area network to another when the two
LANs are separated by a long distance and there is a
wide area network connecting the two LANs.
•A remote bridge takes the frame before it leaves the
first LAN and encapsulates the WAN headers and
trailers.
•When the packet arrives at the destination remote
bridge, that bridge removes the WAN headers and
trailers leaving the original frame.
95. Data Communications and Computer Networks
Switches
•A switch is a combination of a hub and a bridge(multi-
port bridge).
•It can interconnect two or more workstations, but like a
bridge, it observes traffic flow and learns.
•When a frame arrives at a switch, the switch examines the
destination address and forwards the frame out the one
necessary connection.
•Workstations that connect to a hub are on a shared
segment.
•Workstations that connect to a switch are on a switched
segment.
97. LAN/WLANWorld
LANs provide connectivity for interconnecting
computing resources at the local levels of an
organization
Wired LANs
Limitations because of physical,hard-
wired infrastructure
Wireless LANs provide
Flexibility
Portability
Mobility
Ease of Installation
99. IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN
Standard
In response to lacking standards, IEEE
developed the first internationally
recognized wireless LAN standard – IEEE
802.11
IEEE published 802.11 in 1997, after seven
years of work
Scope of IEEE 802.11 is limited to Physical
and Data Link Layers.
100. Benefitsof802.11 Standard
Appliance Interoperability
Fast Product Development
Stable Future Migration
Price Reductions
The 802.11standard takesinto account the
following significant differences between
wireless and wired LANs:
Power Management
Security
Bandwidth
101. WLAN Topology
Ad-Hoc Network
The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to otherBSSs.
they can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS.
104. StationTypes
IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations
based on their mobilityin awireless LAN:
◦ no-transition
A station is either stationary (not moving) or moving only insidea BSS
◦ BSS-transition
station canmove from one BSS to another
,butthemovementis confined
inside one ESS.
◦ and ESS-transition mobility
.
A station can move from one ESS to another
105. collisionavoidanceCSMAICA
network allocation vector (NAV) used to
avoid collision.
◦ RTS frameincludes the duration of timethatit needs to occupy
the channel.
◦ stations affectedby this transmission create atimer called(NAV)
◦ thenetwork allocationvector (NAV) shows thetimemust pass
before these stations allowed to check the channelfor idleness.
there is no mechanism for collision detection, ifthe
sender has not received aCTS frame from the receiver
,
assumes there has been acollision ,thesender tries
again.
106. BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology
designed to connect devices of different functions
such as telephones, notebooks, computers,
and so on. A
cameras, printers, coffee makers,
Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which
means that the network is formed spontaneously.
Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
piconet and scatternet.
107. Piconet
A Bluetooth network is calledapiconet, or asmall net.
It canhaveup to eightstations,one of whichis calledthemaster;the rest
arecalled slaves.
Maximum of sevenslaves.Only one master
.
Slaves synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the master
.
But anadditionaleightslavescanstayinparked state,whichmeansthey
canbesynchronized withthemasterbut cannottakepartin
communicationuntil it is moved from the parked state.
108. Scatternet
Piconets canbecombined to form whatis calleda
scatternet.
A slavestation inone piconet canbecome the
master in
• another piconet.
Bluetooth devices hasabuilt-in short-range radio
transmitter.
109. Bluetooth layers
Radio Layer:Roughly equivalent to physicallayerof theInternet model.
Physicallinks canbesynchronous or asynchronous.
◦ Uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum [Changing frequencyof usage].
Changes itmodulation frequency1600 timesper second.
◦ Uses frequencyshiftkeying(FSK )withGaussian bandwidthfiltering to
transform bits to a signal.
Basebandlayer:Roughly equivalent to MAC sublayerinLANs. Accessis
usingTime Division (Time slots).
◦ Length of timeslot = dwelltime= 625 microsec. So,during one frequency
,a
sender sends aframeto aslave,or aslavesends aframeto themaster
.
Time division duplexingTDMA (TDD-TDMA) is a kind of half-duplex
communicationinwhichtheslaveandreceiver send andreceivedata,but
not atthesametime(half-duplex). However
,thecommunicationfor each
directionuses differenthops,like walkie-talkies.
111. PhysicalLinks
Synchronous connection-oriented (SCO)
◦ Latency is important than integrity
.
◦ T
ransmission using slots.
◦ No retransmission.
Asynchronous connectionless link (ACL)
◦ Integrity is important than latency
.
◦ Does like multiple-slave communication.
◦ Retransmission is done.
L2CAP (Logical Link Control andAdaptationProtocol)
◦ Equivalent to LLC sublayer in LANs.
◦ Used for dataexchange onACL Link.SCO channels do not use L2CAP
.
◦ Frame format has 16-bit length [Size of datacoming from upper layerin bytes],
channel ID, data and control.
◦ Can do Multiplexing, segmentation and Reassembly
, QoS [with no QoS, best-
effort delivery is provided] and Group mangement [Can do like multicast group,
using some kind of logical addresses].