Physical Chemistry By Atkins

1. CHEM 560:
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
PRESENTERS:
MR. IAN JAY P. SALDO MRS. MARITES E. BATION
MST-PS STUDENTS

2. CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
6A The equilibrium constant
6B The response of equilibria to the
conditions
6C Electrochemical cells
6D Electrode potentials

3. 6A THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
➤ What is the key idea?
The composition of a reaction mixture
tends to change until the Gibbs energy is a
minimum.

4. 6A THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT
6A.1 THE GIBBS ENERGY MINIMUM
We locate the equilibrium composition of a
reaction mixture by calculating the Gibbs
energy of the reaction mixture and identifying
the composition that corresponds to minimum
G.

5. (A) THE REACTION GIBBS ENERGY
The change in the amount of A present is dnA =
−dξ and the change in the amount of B present
is
dnB = +dξ. The quantity ξ (xi) is called the
extent of reaction.

6. (A) THE REACTION GIBBS ENERGY
 The reaction Gibbs energy, ΔrG, is defined as the
slope of the graph of the Gibbs energy plotted
against the extent of reaction:

7. (A) THE REACTION GIBBS ENERGY
This condition occurs when μB = μA.
Figure 6A.1
As the reaction advances
(represented by motion
from left to right along
the horizontal axis) the
slope of the Gibbs energy
changes. Equilibrium
corresponds to zero slope
at the foot of the valley.

8. (B) EXERGONIC AND ENDERGONIC REACTIONS
The spontaneity of a reaction at constant temperature and
pressure can be expressed in terms of the reaction Gibbs
energy:
 • If ΔrG < 0, the forward reaction is spontaneous.
 • If ΔrG > 0, the reverse reaction is spontaneous.
 • If ΔrG = 0, the reaction is at equilibrium.

9. (B) EXERGONIC AND ENDERGONIC REACTIONS
A reaction for which ΔrG < 0 is called exergonic
(from the Greek words for work producing).
Figure 6A.2 If two weights are coupled as shown here, then
the heavier weight will move the lighter weight in its
nonspontaneous direction: overall, the process is still
spontaneous. The weights are the analogues of two chemical
reactions: a reaction with a large negative ΔG can force another
reaction with a smaller ΔG to run in its non-spontaneous
direction.

10. (B) EXERGONIC AND ENDERGONIC REACTIONS
A reaction for which ΔrG > 0 is called
endergonic (signifying work consuming).
The reaction can be made to occur only by
doing work on it, such as electrolyzing water to
reverse its spontaneous formation reaction.

11. 6A.2 THE DESCRIPTION OF EQUILIBRIUM
(a)Perfect gas equilibria

12. CONTINUATION…

13. CONTINUATION…
(b) The general case of a reaction
 where J denotes the substances and the
 νJ are the corresponding stoichiometric numbers in
the chemical equation

14. CONTINUATION…

15. CONTINUATION…

16. CONTINUATION…
Thermodynamic Equilibrium Constant
At this point we set ΔrG = 0 in eqn 6A.10 and replace Q by K.
We immediately obtain

17. CONTINUATION…
(c) The relation between equilibrium constants

18. 6B THE RESPONSE OF EQUILIBRIA TO THE CONDITIONS
➤ What is the key idea?
A system at equilibrium, when subjected to
a disturbance, responds in a way that tends
to minimize the effect of the disturbance.

19. 6B THE RESPONSE OF EQUILIBRIA TO THE CONDITIONS
6B.1 THE RESPONSE TO PRESSURE
 The equilibrium constant depends on the value of
ΔrG, which is defined at a single, standard pressure.
The value of ΔrG, and hence of K, is therefore
independent of the pressure at which the
equilibrium is actually established. In other words,
at a given temperature K is a constant.

20. CONTINUATION…
French chemist Henri Le Chatelier proposed
a principle which states that:
A system at equilibrium, when subjected to a disturbance,
responds in a way that tends to minimize the effect of the
disturbance.

21. CONTINUATION…
 To treat the effect of compression quantitatively, we suppose that
there is an amount n of A present initially (and no B).At equilibrium
the amount of A is (1 − α)n and the amount of B is 2αn, where α is
the degree of dissociation of A into 2B. It follows that the mole
fractions present at equilibrium are

22. 6B.2 THE RESPONSE TO TEMPERATURE
Le Chatelier’s principle predicts that a system at
equilibrium will tend to shift in the endothermic
direction if the temperature is raised, for then
energy is absorbed as heat and the rise in
temperature is opposed.

23. 6B.2 THE RESPONSE TO TEMPERATURE
Conversely, an equilibrium can be expected to
shift in the exothermic direction if the
temperature is lowered, for then energy is
released and the reduction in temperature is
opposed.

24. 6B.2 THE RESPONSE TO TEMPERATURE
Summary:
Exothermic reactions: increased temperature
favors the reactants.
Endothermic reactions: increased temperature
favors the products.

25. 6C ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
➤ What is the key idea?
The electrical work that a reaction can
perform at constant pressure and
temperature is equal to the reaction Gibbs
energy.

26. 6C ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
An electrochemical cell consists of two
electrodes, or metallic conductors, in contact
with an electrolyte, an ionic conductor (which
may be a solution, a liquid, or a solid).

27. 6C ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
A galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that
produces electricity as a result of the
spontaneous reaction occurring inside it.
An electrolytic cell is an electrochemical cell in
which a non-spontaneous reaction is driven by
an external source of current.

28. 6C ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
6C.1 Half-reactions and electrodes
Review:
Oxidation is the removal of electrons from a
species, a reduction is the addition of electrons
to a species, and a redox reaction is a reaction
in which there is a transfer of electrons from
one species to another.

29. CONTINUATION…

30. 6C.2 VARIETIES OF CELLS
The simplest type of cell has a single electrolyte common to
both electrodes (as in Fig. 6C.1).
Figure 6C.1
When a spontaneous reaction takes place
in a galvanic cell, electrons are deposited in
one electrode (the site of oxidation, the
anode) and collected from another (the site
of reduction, the cathode), and so there is a
net flow of current which can be used to do
work. Note that the + sign of the cathode
can be interpreted as indicating the
electrode at which electrons enter the cell,
and the – sign of the anode is where the
electrons leave the cell.

31. 6C.2 VARIETIES OF CELLS
Figure 6C.2
One version of the Daniell cell.
The copper electrode is the
cathode and the zinc electrode
is the anode. Electrons leave
the cell from the zinc electrode
and enter it again through the
copper electrode.

32. 6C.2 VARIETIES OF CELLS
(a)Liquid junction potentials
 A cell with two different electrolyte solutions in
contact will have additional source of potential
difference across the interface of the two
electrolytes.

33. 6C.2 VARIETIES OF CELLS
(a)Liquid junction potentials
Figure 6C.3
The salt bridge, essentially an
inverted U-tube full of
concentrated salt solution in a
jelly, has two opposing liquid
junction potentials that almost
cancel.

34. 6C.2 VARIETIES OF CELLS
(b) Notation

35. 6C.3 THE CELL POTENTIAL
The current produced by a galvanic cell arises
from the spontaneous chemical reaction taking
place inside it. The cell reaction is the reaction
in the cell written on the assumption that the
right-hand electrode is the cathode, and hence
that the spontaneous reaction is one in which
reduction is taking place in the right-hand
compartment.

36. 6C.3 THE CELL POTENTIAL
where
F is Faraday’s constant, F = eNA, and
ν is the stoichiometric coefficient of the electrons in the half-reactions
into which the cell reaction can be divided.

37. 6C.3 THE CELL POTENTIAL

38. 6C.3 THE CELL POTENTIAL
Note!
Chemical reaction at equilibrium cannot do work, and
hence it generates zero potential difference between the
electrodes of a galvanic cell. Therefore, setting
Ecell = 0 and Q = K in the Nernst equation gives

39. 6C.4 THE DETERMINATION OF THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS

40. 6C.4 THE DETERMINATION OF THERMODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS

41. 6D ELECTRODE POTENTIALS
➤ What is the key idea?
Each electrode of a cell can be supposed to
make a characteristic contribution to the
cell potential; redox couples with low
electrode potentials tend to reduce those
with higher potentials.

42. 6D ELECTRODE POTENTIALS
6D.1 Standard potentials

43. 6D ELECTRODE POTENTIALS
6D.1 Standard potentials

44. 6D ELECTRODE POTENTIALS
6D.1 Standard potentials

45. 6D ELECTRODE POTENTIALS
6D.2 Applications of standard potentials
 Cell potentials are a convenient source of data on
equilibrium constants and the Gibbs energies,
enthalpies, and entropies of reactions. In practice
the standard values of these quantities are the ones
normally determined.

46. THANK YOU!