The evolution of radiation treatment planning and delivery, with innovative techniques (3DCRT, IMRT, IGRT, IGBT), particle therapy allowing for better definition of target and sensitive structure volumes and more precise quantification of dose, has introduced more complexity into the evaluation of radiation effects on OARs.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in medical physics including:
- The proton has a mass of one atomic mass unit and a positive charge. Neutrons are electrically neutral.
- Atoms are composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons. Electrons are arranged in shells and their configuration determines an element's properties.
- The three states of matter - solids, liquids, gases - can be distinguished based on the strength of cohesive and kinetic forces between molecules. Heat is transferred between objects via conduction, convection and radiation.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in medical physics including:
- The proton has a mass of one atomic mass unit and a positive charge. Neutrons are electrically neutral.
- Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons.
- The number of protons determines the element and isotopes have the same number of protons but different neutrons.
- Materials are classified as conductors, insulators or semiconductors based on their ability to conduct electricity and heat. Heat transfer occurs via conduction, convection or radiation.
1) Atoms are the building blocks of matter and are composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons that orbit in shells.
2) There are different subatomic particles that make up an atom including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus while electrons orbit in shells around the nucleus.
3) Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have differing numbers of neutrons. For example, hydrogen has isotopes of deuterium and tritium that have extra neutrons compared to common hydrogen.
This document provides an introduction to biochemistry by discussing basic chemical principles like atomic structure, subatomic particles, isotopes, ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and molecular properties of water. It explains that biochemistry relies on an understanding of the chemistry of living systems, which are composed of chemical elements consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The chemical properties of elements, including their ability to form ionic and covalent bonds, are determined by their electron configuration and electronegativity.
This document provides information about atomic structure and bonding. It discusses:
- The basic components of atoms (protons, neutrons, electrons) and their properties.
- Electron orbitals and energy levels within atoms. Electrons occupy discrete shells and energy levels.
- Covalent bonding between atoms, where valence electrons are shared. This forms crystalline structures.
- Semiconductors like silicon and germanium have incomplete valence shells, so their atoms form covalent bonds to share electrons until each has a full outer shell. This tightly binds electrons.
- Doping semiconductors with impurities introduces extra electrons or holes, increasing conductivity and making the material n-type or p-
The document discusses the structure of the atom. It describes how atoms are composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons. The nucleus is very small compared to the size of the atom. Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels. The distribution and number of electrons determines an element's properties. Nuclear stability depends on the ratio of protons to neutrons. Binding energy holds the nucleus together. Various subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and electrons have distinct properties like mass and charge. Nuclear forces interact within the nucleus. Particle radiation involves the emission and propagation of energy by particles with mass and momentum.
The document summarizes trends in atomic properties across periods 2 and 3 of the periodic table. Atomic radius decreases across periods due to increasing nuclear charge, while it increases down groups due to greater screening effect. Ionic radius, melting/boiling points, and enthalpy of vaporization follow similar trends. Electrical conductivity increases with more delocalized electrons. Electronegativity increases across periods but decreases down groups.
The evolution of radiation treatment planning and delivery, with innovative techniques (3DCRT, IMRT, IGRT, IGBT), particle therapy allowing for better definition of target and sensitive structure volumes and more precise quantification of dose, has introduced more complexity into the evaluation of radiation effects on OARs.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in medical physics including:
- The proton has a mass of one atomic mass unit and a positive charge. Neutrons are electrically neutral.
- Atoms are composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons. Electrons are arranged in shells and their configuration determines an element's properties.
- The three states of matter - solids, liquids, gases - can be distinguished based on the strength of cohesive and kinetic forces between molecules. Heat is transferred between objects via conduction, convection and radiation.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in medical physics including:
- The proton has a mass of one atomic mass unit and a positive charge. Neutrons are electrically neutral.
- Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons.
- The number of protons determines the element and isotopes have the same number of protons but different neutrons.
- Materials are classified as conductors, insulators or semiconductors based on their ability to conduct electricity and heat. Heat transfer occurs via conduction, convection or radiation.
1) Atoms are the building blocks of matter and are composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons that orbit in shells.
2) There are different subatomic particles that make up an atom including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus while electrons orbit in shells around the nucleus.
3) Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have differing numbers of neutrons. For example, hydrogen has isotopes of deuterium and tritium that have extra neutrons compared to common hydrogen.
This document provides an introduction to biochemistry by discussing basic chemical principles like atomic structure, subatomic particles, isotopes, ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and molecular properties of water. It explains that biochemistry relies on an understanding of the chemistry of living systems, which are composed of chemical elements consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The chemical properties of elements, including their ability to form ionic and covalent bonds, are determined by their electron configuration and electronegativity.
This document provides information about atomic structure and bonding. It discusses:
- The basic components of atoms (protons, neutrons, electrons) and their properties.
- Electron orbitals and energy levels within atoms. Electrons occupy discrete shells and energy levels.
- Covalent bonding between atoms, where valence electrons are shared. This forms crystalline structures.
- Semiconductors like silicon and germanium have incomplete valence shells, so their atoms form covalent bonds to share electrons until each has a full outer shell. This tightly binds electrons.
- Doping semiconductors with impurities introduces extra electrons or holes, increasing conductivity and making the material n-type or p-
The document discusses the structure of the atom. It describes how atoms are composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons. The nucleus is very small compared to the size of the atom. Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels. The distribution and number of electrons determines an element's properties. Nuclear stability depends on the ratio of protons to neutrons. Binding energy holds the nucleus together. Various subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and electrons have distinct properties like mass and charge. Nuclear forces interact within the nucleus. Particle radiation involves the emission and propagation of energy by particles with mass and momentum.
The document summarizes trends in atomic properties across periods 2 and 3 of the periodic table. Atomic radius decreases across periods due to increasing nuclear charge, while it increases down groups due to greater screening effect. Ionic radius, melting/boiling points, and enthalpy of vaporization follow similar trends. Electrical conductivity increases with more delocalized electrons. Electronegativity increases across periods but decreases down groups.
Applied Chemistry, atomic and molecular structure, part 1, by Shiraz mahbob PhDMaqsoodAhmadKhan5
applied chemistry lecture and slide,
Applied Chemistry, atomic and molecular structure, part 1, by Shiraz mahbob PhD, lecturer in chemistry in pakistan institute of engineering and applied sciences
This document discusses periodic trends in properties such as ionization energy, atomic radius, electronegativity, and electron affinity. It explains that these properties generally increase or decrease predictably across periods and down groups on the periodic table due to factors like nuclear charge, electron shielding, and electron configuration. Predictable trends in properties can be understood and used to make inferences about elements based on their positions in the periodic table.
This document provides an overview of atomic structure and chemical bonding. It discusses the following key points:
- About 25 elements are essential for life, with carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen making up 96% of living matter.
- Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Chemical behavior is determined by the atom's electron configuration.
- Atoms combine via covalent bonds, which involve sharing electrons, and ionic bonds, which involve electron transfer. Weak bonds like hydrogen bonds also play important roles in biology.
- Covalent bonds form molecules, while ionic bonds form crystalline ionic compounds. Bond type depends on differences in electronegativity between atoms.
- Dalton's model proposed that all matter is made of tiny particles called atoms, all atoms of the same element are alike but different from other elements, and compounds form from atoms combining in fixed proportions. Thomson's model pictured the atom as a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded within it. Rutherford's model showed that the atom's positive charge and most of its mass are concentrated in a tiny, dense nucleus at the center with electrons orbiting outside. The parts of an atom include the nucleus containing protons and neutrons at its center, surrounded by electrons. Protons have a positive charge while neutrons have no charge. Electrons have a negative charge and much less mass than protons or neutrons.
This document provides an overview of atomic structure, bonding, and electron distribution. It begins by defining the basic subatomic particles that make up atoms. It then discusses several historical atomic models including Thomson's plum pudding model, Rutherford's nuclear model, and Bohr's early quantum model. The document introduces concepts like electron orbitals and quantum numbers. It also covers bonding theories such as ionic and covalent bonding as well as localized and delocalized bonding. Hybridization of atomic orbitals is discussed through examples like sp, sp2, and sp3 hybridization. The summary concludes with an introduction to molecular orbital theory.
Human physiology involves the study of molecules, cells, tissues, organs and organ systems that make up the human body. At the most basic level, atoms combine through chemical bonds like ionic and covalent bonds to form molecules, which then organize into cells. Cells further organize into tissues and organs to carry out specific functions and form organ systems that allow the human body to function as a whole.
The document discusses the evolution of atomic theories from ancient Greek ideas to modern atomic structure. It covers the Greek concept of atoms as indivisible particles, Dalton's postulation that atoms are basic units that combine to form compounds, Thomson's "plum pudding" model depicting electrons in an atom, and Bohr's model of electrons orbiting the nucleus in fixed shells like planets around the sun. The modern atomic model includes protons and neutrons in the nucleus surrounded by electrons in shells, with the number of protons determining the element.
Assignment Physical Chemistry By Anam FatimaNathan Mathis
1. The document discusses nuclear chemistry concepts including nuclear stability factors, mass defect vs binding energy, nuclear reactions such as fission and fusion, and atomic bombs.
2. It provides examples of calculating binding energy and discusses the difference between mass defect and binding energy. Mass defect represents the mass of energy binding nuclei while binding energy is the energy required to split a nucleus.
3. Nuclear fission is described as the splitting of atomic nuclei when bombarded by neutrons or other particles, releasing energy. Uranium-235 and plutonium-239 undergo fission, splitting into smaller nuclei along with neutron release. Neutrons are ideal for inducing fission since they have no charge.
Nuclear chemistry deals with changes that occur in the nucleus of an atom. It involves the study of radioactivity, nuclear reactions and transformations, and nuclear properties. Some key topics covered include nuclear fusion, fission, radioactive decay, and chain reactions. The liquid drop model describes atomic nuclei as behaving like liquid drops, with nucleons held together by nuclear forces analogous to surface tension. Nuclear stability is influenced by factors such as these nuclear forces, mass defect, and binding energy. Mass defect represents the difference between a nucleus's calculated and observed mass, with the difference corresponding to the energy binding the nucleus. Binding energy refers to the energy released when nucleons come together or required to separate them.
The document summarizes the structure of the atom. It discusses that atoms are composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in orbits. The nucleus is much smaller than the atom but contains most of its mass. Properties of atoms are determined by the number and arrangement of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons can occupy different energy levels in orbits around the nucleus. Nuclear forces hold the nucleus together, while electromagnetic forces between protons cause repulsion.
The document provides an overview of a course on radiation detection and protection. It discusses topics like the interaction of radiation with matter, basic principles of radiation detection using devices like ionization chambers and scintillation detectors. It also covers radiation quantities and units, shielding design, dose estimation from internal and external radiation exposures, transportation and disposal of radioactive materials, and safety standards.
Atomic structure as applied to generation of X-rays.pptxDr. Dheeraj Kumar
Atoms are the fundamental units of matter.
Composed of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Unique identity determined by the number of protons (atomic number).
The document provides an overview of atomic physics, including:
1) The basic structure of an atom consisting of a nucleus with positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
2) Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
3) Chemical reactions involve changes to molecular structure but preserve atomic identity, while nuclear reactions alter the nucleus.
4) Mass defect and binding energy explain nuclear stability, with the most stable nuclei having intermediate mass numbers. Radioactive decay occurs as unstable heavy isotopes emit particles or radiation over time.
The document discusses atomic structure and chemical bonds. It explains that atoms are made up of protons and neutrons in the nucleus surrounded by electrons in energy levels. The number and arrangement of electrons determines an element's properties. Electrons closer to the nucleus have lower energy than those farther away. Elements in the same family on the periodic table have similar properties because they have the same number of electrons in their outer energy level, which determines how they bond with other elements.
This document provides an overview of nuclear chemistry concepts including:
1) Atomic structure including shells, orbitals, suborbitals and electrons that make up the nucleus and negative charge of an atom.
2) Trends in the periodic table such as decreasing atomic radius and increasing electronegativity and ionization energy across periods and down groups.
3) Bonding types including covalent, polar, and ionic determined by electronegativity differences between atoms.
4) Molecular forces that determine melting and boiling points including ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and Van der Waals forces.
5) Solubility principles of "like dissolves like" where covalent and polar substances dissolve in co
ELECTRON-theory ppt industrials arts part2GalangRoxanne
Electron theory aims to explain the structure and properties of matter through its electronic structure. It states that all matter is comprised of molecules made up of atoms, which contain protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons play a key role in electricity as their movement constitutes electric current. Within atoms, electrons exist in specific energy levels or shells around the nucleus, and their behavior is described by quantum mechanics.
Nuclear chemistry deals with the composition of atomic nuclei, nuclear forces, reactions, and radioactive materials. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, which are held together by the strong nuclear force balancing the electromagnetic repulsion between protons. Unstable nuclei undergo radioactive decay through processes like alpha decay (emitting an alpha particle), beta decay (emitting an electron), gamma decay (emitting gamma rays), or other rarer types of decay, becoming more stable nuclides over time until reaching a stable configuration. Nuclear reactions involve changes to nuclei and preserve the total number of nucleons.
BE UNIT-1 basic electronics unit one.pptxharisbs369
1. The document discusses the atomic structure of matter, which is made up of protons, electrons, and neutrons. Atoms contain protons and neutrons in their nucleus, surrounded by electrons.
2. Atoms of different elements have different atomic structures because they contain different numbers of protons and electrons. Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons, but atoms can gain or lose electrons to become ions.
3. The document then discusses subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons in more detail, including their relative masses and charges. It also discusses isotopes and how they have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
The document discusses periodic trends in elemental properties. It explains that Dmitri Mendeleev was the first to organize elements in a periodic table based on their properties. Elements in the same group have similar properties due to their valence electrons. Atomic radius generally decreases moving left to right across a period and increases moving down a group due to electron shielding. Ionization energy increases as atomic radius decreases. Electron affinity is exothermic when gaining electrons fills an orbital. Metallic character decreases and electronegativity increases moving from left to right. Cations are smaller than their parent atoms while anions are larger.
This document discusses the chemical components that make up cells. It begins by explaining that all matter is made up of combinations of elements, which are substances like carbon and hydrogen that cannot be broken down further. Atoms are the smallest particles of elements that retain chemical properties, and molecules are formed by atoms linking together through chemical bonds. The document then discusses the basic structure of atoms, including protons, neutrons, and electrons. It explains that the outermost electrons determine how atoms interact and form different types of chemical bonds, such as ionic bonds formed by electron transfer and covalent bonds formed by electron sharing. These bonds link atoms together into molecules that make up living cells and organisms.
Analysis insight about a Flyball dog competition team's performanceroli9797
Insight of my analysis about a Flyball dog competition team's last year performance. Find more: https://github.com/rolandnagy-ds/flyball_race_analysis/tree/main
Applied Chemistry, atomic and molecular structure, part 1, by Shiraz mahbob PhDMaqsoodAhmadKhan5
applied chemistry lecture and slide,
Applied Chemistry, atomic and molecular structure, part 1, by Shiraz mahbob PhD, lecturer in chemistry in pakistan institute of engineering and applied sciences
This document discusses periodic trends in properties such as ionization energy, atomic radius, electronegativity, and electron affinity. It explains that these properties generally increase or decrease predictably across periods and down groups on the periodic table due to factors like nuclear charge, electron shielding, and electron configuration. Predictable trends in properties can be understood and used to make inferences about elements based on their positions in the periodic table.
This document provides an overview of atomic structure and chemical bonding. It discusses the following key points:
- About 25 elements are essential for life, with carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen making up 96% of living matter.
- Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Chemical behavior is determined by the atom's electron configuration.
- Atoms combine via covalent bonds, which involve sharing electrons, and ionic bonds, which involve electron transfer. Weak bonds like hydrogen bonds also play important roles in biology.
- Covalent bonds form molecules, while ionic bonds form crystalline ionic compounds. Bond type depends on differences in electronegativity between atoms.
- Dalton's model proposed that all matter is made of tiny particles called atoms, all atoms of the same element are alike but different from other elements, and compounds form from atoms combining in fixed proportions. Thomson's model pictured the atom as a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded within it. Rutherford's model showed that the atom's positive charge and most of its mass are concentrated in a tiny, dense nucleus at the center with electrons orbiting outside. The parts of an atom include the nucleus containing protons and neutrons at its center, surrounded by electrons. Protons have a positive charge while neutrons have no charge. Electrons have a negative charge and much less mass than protons or neutrons.
This document provides an overview of atomic structure, bonding, and electron distribution. It begins by defining the basic subatomic particles that make up atoms. It then discusses several historical atomic models including Thomson's plum pudding model, Rutherford's nuclear model, and Bohr's early quantum model. The document introduces concepts like electron orbitals and quantum numbers. It also covers bonding theories such as ionic and covalent bonding as well as localized and delocalized bonding. Hybridization of atomic orbitals is discussed through examples like sp, sp2, and sp3 hybridization. The summary concludes with an introduction to molecular orbital theory.
Human physiology involves the study of molecules, cells, tissues, organs and organ systems that make up the human body. At the most basic level, atoms combine through chemical bonds like ionic and covalent bonds to form molecules, which then organize into cells. Cells further organize into tissues and organs to carry out specific functions and form organ systems that allow the human body to function as a whole.
The document discusses the evolution of atomic theories from ancient Greek ideas to modern atomic structure. It covers the Greek concept of atoms as indivisible particles, Dalton's postulation that atoms are basic units that combine to form compounds, Thomson's "plum pudding" model depicting electrons in an atom, and Bohr's model of electrons orbiting the nucleus in fixed shells like planets around the sun. The modern atomic model includes protons and neutrons in the nucleus surrounded by electrons in shells, with the number of protons determining the element.
Assignment Physical Chemistry By Anam FatimaNathan Mathis
1. The document discusses nuclear chemistry concepts including nuclear stability factors, mass defect vs binding energy, nuclear reactions such as fission and fusion, and atomic bombs.
2. It provides examples of calculating binding energy and discusses the difference between mass defect and binding energy. Mass defect represents the mass of energy binding nuclei while binding energy is the energy required to split a nucleus.
3. Nuclear fission is described as the splitting of atomic nuclei when bombarded by neutrons or other particles, releasing energy. Uranium-235 and plutonium-239 undergo fission, splitting into smaller nuclei along with neutron release. Neutrons are ideal for inducing fission since they have no charge.
Nuclear chemistry deals with changes that occur in the nucleus of an atom. It involves the study of radioactivity, nuclear reactions and transformations, and nuclear properties. Some key topics covered include nuclear fusion, fission, radioactive decay, and chain reactions. The liquid drop model describes atomic nuclei as behaving like liquid drops, with nucleons held together by nuclear forces analogous to surface tension. Nuclear stability is influenced by factors such as these nuclear forces, mass defect, and binding energy. Mass defect represents the difference between a nucleus's calculated and observed mass, with the difference corresponding to the energy binding the nucleus. Binding energy refers to the energy released when nucleons come together or required to separate them.
The document summarizes the structure of the atom. It discusses that atoms are composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in orbits. The nucleus is much smaller than the atom but contains most of its mass. Properties of atoms are determined by the number and arrangement of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons can occupy different energy levels in orbits around the nucleus. Nuclear forces hold the nucleus together, while electromagnetic forces between protons cause repulsion.
The document provides an overview of a course on radiation detection and protection. It discusses topics like the interaction of radiation with matter, basic principles of radiation detection using devices like ionization chambers and scintillation detectors. It also covers radiation quantities and units, shielding design, dose estimation from internal and external radiation exposures, transportation and disposal of radioactive materials, and safety standards.
Atomic structure as applied to generation of X-rays.pptxDr. Dheeraj Kumar
Atoms are the fundamental units of matter.
Composed of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Unique identity determined by the number of protons (atomic number).
The document provides an overview of atomic physics, including:
1) The basic structure of an atom consisting of a nucleus with positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
2) Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
3) Chemical reactions involve changes to molecular structure but preserve atomic identity, while nuclear reactions alter the nucleus.
4) Mass defect and binding energy explain nuclear stability, with the most stable nuclei having intermediate mass numbers. Radioactive decay occurs as unstable heavy isotopes emit particles or radiation over time.
The document discusses atomic structure and chemical bonds. It explains that atoms are made up of protons and neutrons in the nucleus surrounded by electrons in energy levels. The number and arrangement of electrons determines an element's properties. Electrons closer to the nucleus have lower energy than those farther away. Elements in the same family on the periodic table have similar properties because they have the same number of electrons in their outer energy level, which determines how they bond with other elements.
This document provides an overview of nuclear chemistry concepts including:
1) Atomic structure including shells, orbitals, suborbitals and electrons that make up the nucleus and negative charge of an atom.
2) Trends in the periodic table such as decreasing atomic radius and increasing electronegativity and ionization energy across periods and down groups.
3) Bonding types including covalent, polar, and ionic determined by electronegativity differences between atoms.
4) Molecular forces that determine melting and boiling points including ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and Van der Waals forces.
5) Solubility principles of "like dissolves like" where covalent and polar substances dissolve in co
ELECTRON-theory ppt industrials arts part2GalangRoxanne
Electron theory aims to explain the structure and properties of matter through its electronic structure. It states that all matter is comprised of molecules made up of atoms, which contain protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons play a key role in electricity as their movement constitutes electric current. Within atoms, electrons exist in specific energy levels or shells around the nucleus, and their behavior is described by quantum mechanics.
Nuclear chemistry deals with the composition of atomic nuclei, nuclear forces, reactions, and radioactive materials. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, which are held together by the strong nuclear force balancing the electromagnetic repulsion between protons. Unstable nuclei undergo radioactive decay through processes like alpha decay (emitting an alpha particle), beta decay (emitting an electron), gamma decay (emitting gamma rays), or other rarer types of decay, becoming more stable nuclides over time until reaching a stable configuration. Nuclear reactions involve changes to nuclei and preserve the total number of nucleons.
BE UNIT-1 basic electronics unit one.pptxharisbs369
1. The document discusses the atomic structure of matter, which is made up of protons, electrons, and neutrons. Atoms contain protons and neutrons in their nucleus, surrounded by electrons.
2. Atoms of different elements have different atomic structures because they contain different numbers of protons and electrons. Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons, but atoms can gain or lose electrons to become ions.
3. The document then discusses subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons in more detail, including their relative masses and charges. It also discusses isotopes and how they have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
The document discusses periodic trends in elemental properties. It explains that Dmitri Mendeleev was the first to organize elements in a periodic table based on their properties. Elements in the same group have similar properties due to their valence electrons. Atomic radius generally decreases moving left to right across a period and increases moving down a group due to electron shielding. Ionization energy increases as atomic radius decreases. Electron affinity is exothermic when gaining electrons fills an orbital. Metallic character decreases and electronegativity increases moving from left to right. Cations are smaller than their parent atoms while anions are larger.
This document discusses the chemical components that make up cells. It begins by explaining that all matter is made up of combinations of elements, which are substances like carbon and hydrogen that cannot be broken down further. Atoms are the smallest particles of elements that retain chemical properties, and molecules are formed by atoms linking together through chemical bonds. The document then discusses the basic structure of atoms, including protons, neutrons, and electrons. It explains that the outermost electrons determine how atoms interact and form different types of chemical bonds, such as ionic bonds formed by electron transfer and covalent bonds formed by electron sharing. These bonds link atoms together into molecules that make up living cells and organisms.
Semelhante a 1. introduction and basic definitions.pf (20)
Analysis insight about a Flyball dog competition team's performanceroli9797
Insight of my analysis about a Flyball dog competition team's last year performance. Find more: https://github.com/rolandnagy-ds/flyball_race_analysis/tree/main
STATATHON: Unleashing the Power of Statistics in a 48-Hour Knowledge Extravag...sameer shah
"Join us for STATATHON, a dynamic 2-day event dedicated to exploring statistical knowledge and its real-world applications. From theory to practice, participants engage in intensive learning sessions, workshops, and challenges, fostering a deeper understanding of statistical methodologies and their significance in various fields."
Orchestrating the Future: Navigating Today's Data Workflow Challenges with Ai...Kaxil Naik
Navigating today's data landscape isn't just about managing workflows; it's about strategically propelling your business forward. Apache Airflow has stood out as the benchmark in this arena, driving data orchestration forward since its early days. As we dive into the complexities of our current data-rich environment, where the sheer volume of information and its timely, accurate processing are crucial for AI and ML applications, the role of Airflow has never been more critical.
In my journey as the Senior Engineering Director and a pivotal member of Apache Airflow's Project Management Committee (PMC), I've witnessed Airflow transform data handling, making agility and insight the norm in an ever-evolving digital space. At Astronomer, our collaboration with leading AI & ML teams worldwide has not only tested but also proven Airflow's mettle in delivering data reliably and efficiently—data that now powers not just insights but core business functions.
This session is a deep dive into the essence of Airflow's success. We'll trace its evolution from a budding project to the backbone of data orchestration it is today, constantly adapting to meet the next wave of data challenges, including those brought on by Generative AI. It's this forward-thinking adaptability that keeps Airflow at the forefront of innovation, ready for whatever comes next.
The ever-growing demands of AI and ML applications have ushered in an era where sophisticated data management isn't a luxury—it's a necessity. Airflow's innate flexibility and scalability are what makes it indispensable in managing the intricate workflows of today, especially those involving Large Language Models (LLMs).
This talk isn't just a rundown of Airflow's features; it's about harnessing these capabilities to turn your data workflows into a strategic asset. Together, we'll explore how Airflow remains at the cutting edge of data orchestration, ensuring your organization is not just keeping pace but setting the pace in a data-driven future.
Session in https://budapestdata.hu/2024/04/kaxil-naik-astronomer-io/ | https://dataml24.sessionize.com/session/667627
The Ipsos - AI - Monitor 2024 Report.pdfSocial Samosa
According to Ipsos AI Monitor's 2024 report, 65% Indians said that products and services using AI have profoundly changed their daily life in the past 3-5 years.
Build applications with generative AI on Google CloudMárton Kodok
We will explore Vertex AI - Model Garden powered experiences, we are going to learn more about the integration of these generative AI APIs. We are going to see in action what the Gemini family of generative models are for developers to build and deploy AI-driven applications. Vertex AI includes a suite of foundation models, these are referred to as the PaLM and Gemini family of generative ai models, and they come in different versions. We are going to cover how to use via API to: - execute prompts in text and chat - cover multimodal use cases with image prompts. - finetune and distill to improve knowledge domains - run function calls with foundation models to optimize them for specific tasks. At the end of the session, developers will understand how to innovate with generative AI and develop apps using the generative ai industry trends.
Codeless Generative AI Pipelines
(GenAI with Milvus)
https://ml.dssconf.pl/user.html#!/lecture/DSSML24-041a/rate
Discover the potential of real-time streaming in the context of GenAI as we delve into the intricacies of Apache NiFi and its capabilities. Learn how this tool can significantly simplify the data engineering workflow for GenAI applications, allowing you to focus on the creative aspects rather than the technical complexities. I will guide you through practical examples and use cases, showing the impact of automation on prompt building. From data ingestion to transformation and delivery, witness how Apache NiFi streamlines the entire pipeline, ensuring a smooth and hassle-free experience.
Timothy Spann
https://www.youtube.com/@FLaNK-Stack
https://medium.com/@tspann
https://www.datainmotion.dev/
milvus, unstructured data, vector database, zilliz, cloud, vectors, python, deep learning, generative ai, genai, nifi, kafka, flink, streaming, iot, edge
Global Situational Awareness of A.I. and where its headedvikram sood
You can see the future first in San Francisco.
Over the past year, the talk of the town has shifted from $10 billion compute clusters to $100 billion clusters to trillion-dollar clusters. Every six months another zero is added to the boardroom plans. Behind the scenes, there’s a fierce scramble to secure every power contract still available for the rest of the decade, every voltage transformer that can possibly be procured. American big business is gearing up to pour trillions of dollars into a long-unseen mobilization of American industrial might. By the end of the decade, American electricity production will have grown tens of percent; from the shale fields of Pennsylvania to the solar farms of Nevada, hundreds of millions of GPUs will hum.
The AGI race has begun. We are building machines that can think and reason. By 2025/26, these machines will outpace college graduates. By the end of the decade, they will be smarter than you or I; we will have superintelligence, in the true sense of the word. Along the way, national security forces not seen in half a century will be un-leashed, and before long, The Project will be on. If we’re lucky, we’ll be in an all-out race with the CCP; if we’re unlucky, an all-out war.
Everyone is now talking about AI, but few have the faintest glimmer of what is about to hit them. Nvidia analysts still think 2024 might be close to the peak. Mainstream pundits are stuck on the wilful blindness of “it’s just predicting the next word”. They see only hype and business-as-usual; at most they entertain another internet-scale technological change.
Before long, the world will wake up. But right now, there are perhaps a few hundred people, most of them in San Francisco and the AI labs, that have situational awareness. Through whatever peculiar forces of fate, I have found myself amongst them. A few years ago, these people were derided as crazy—but they trusted the trendlines, which allowed them to correctly predict the AI advances of the past few years. Whether these people are also right about the next few years remains to be seen. But these are very smart people—the smartest people I have ever met—and they are the ones building this technology. Perhaps they will be an odd footnote in history, or perhaps they will go down in history like Szilard and Oppenheimer and Teller. If they are seeing the future even close to correctly, we are in for a wild ride.
Let me tell you what we see.
2. • Radiation therapy means using radiation for treatment of malignant and some benign
conditions.
✓An understanding of the particles and processes involved in imparting radiation energy to
matter is fundamental to the clinical application of ionizing radiation to patients.
3. • In the irradiation of a biological system, physical and biological events occur in the following
order:
✓Physical events: Physical interactions (e.g., photoelectric, Compton, collisional) result in
ionizations and radiation dose.
✓Chemical events: Ionizations result in broken atomic and molecular bonds or chemical
changes.
✓Biological events: Changes in the chemistry of molecules result in changes in biological
function (i.e., cells have improper or changed function).
✓Clinical events: Biological alteration may result in clinical changes, such as tumor regression,
cancer induction, or tissue fibrosis.
4. Radiation Physics
• Radiation oncology as a field uses energy in the form of ionizing radiation delivered to a
target for cure or palliation.
• A basic understanding of the physical properties of radiation is critical to understand:
✓ What this radiation is.
✓ How it is produced
✓ How it reacts with tissue.
5. • Medical physics is largely, but not exclusively, based on the study and use of ionizing
radiation in medicine;
• Health physics deals with health hazards posed by ionizing radiation and with safety issues
related to use of ionizing radiation
7. The absolute basics Elements and compounds
• Everything is made up of matter. There are two types of matter — elements and compounds.
• An element is a kind of matter that cannot be decomposed into two or more simpler types of
matter. An example of an element is hydrogen.
• A compound is a kind of matter that can be decomposed into two or more simpler types of
matter.
✓A compound is formed when two or more elements combine to produce a more complex
kind of matter. An example of a compound is water, which can be broken down into the two
elements, hydrogen and oxygen.
8.
9. Atoms and molecules
• Atoms are the very smallest particles of an element that can exist without losing the
chemical properties of the element.
• There are 114 types of atom, all defined in the periodic table by their atomic
numbers. The periodic table arranges the atoms in groups and in periods.
✓The rows are called periods and the columns are called groups.
✓Elements/atoms in the same groups are like each other.
10.
11. • Molecules are the smallest particles of a compound that can exist without losing
the chemical properties of that compound — for example, the water molecule
consisting of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. If the molecule is broken
down further the resulting matter loses the properties of water.
12. Atomic substructure
• Atoms can be broken down into smaller particles. These particles are neutrons,
protons and electrons.
• Neutrons and protons are in the nucleus of the atom and are surrounded by the
electrons.
✓Protons are relatively large particles and have a positive charge.
✓Neutrons are also ‘ large ’ but have no charge.
• Electrons are relatively much smaller and lighter particles. They are attracted to the
nucleus because they have a negative charge, but do not collide with it because the
electrons orbit the nucleus.
13.
14. Atomic and mass numbers
• Each atom has a particular number of protons and neutrons.
• The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus, Z.
• The mass number of an atom is the number of protons and neutrons added
together, A.
• The atomic and mass numbers for an atom X are depicted as:
• The atomic number, i.e., the number of protons in an atom, defines the
atom/element.
15. • The atomic mass M is smaller than the sum of individual masses of constituent
particles because of the intrinsic energy associated with binding the particles
(nucleons) within the nucleus.
• The atomic mass is larger than the nuclear mass because the atomic mass includes
the mass contribution by Z orbital electrons while the nuclear mass does not.
16. • If the number of protons is somehow changed, the atom changes into that of another
element.
• In contrast, if the number of neutrons is changed, the atom remains the same, but may
have some different characteristics. Atoms with the same atomic number but different
mass numbers are called isotopes.
• The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide.
• The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus,
with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay.
17. • The term nuclide refers to all atomic forms of all elements.
• An element may be composed of atoms that all have the same number of protons, i.e.,
have the same atomic number Z, but have a different number of neutrons, i.e., have
different atomic mass numbers A.
18. Electron shells and energy levels
• Electrons reside around the nucleus in number of ‘ shells ’ . They cannot exist
between these shells.
• The shells are labelled with letters of the alphabet, starting with K at the inner shell.
• Each shell can hold a maximum number of electrons.
• Most shells are made up of sub-shells.
✓The shell closest to the nucleus (K) has one shell, which can hold a maximum of 2
electrons. The next shell out (L) has two sub-shells — one holding a maximum of 2
and the second capable of holding a maximum of 6 electrons. The next shell (M) has
3 sub-shells, holding 2, 6 and 10 electrons.
19.
20. Electron binding energy
• Electrons are bound to the nucleus by the attraction between negative and positive
charge.
• This attraction means that it takes energy from outside to separate the nucleus from
the electron.
• Electron binding energy is the energy required to knock an electron loose:
✓It increases with proximity to the nucleus by radius squared (r2).
✓Electron binding energy increases with increasing charge of the nucleus (Z).
✓The binding energy is greatest for the inner shell and is progressively lower for each
shell moving away from the nucleus.
21. Inner shell electrons
• have a large binding energy because they are very close to the nucleus.
• Even though they have a higher “binding energy” these electrons are said to be at
a “lower energy level”.
Valence (outer) electrons
• Have little binding energy because they are further away and are easily removed.
• Any change in orbit is associated with a change in energy.
• Pushing energy into an atom can knock an electron loose from its valence shell (or
raise the shell to a higher shell).
22. • When an electron moves from a higher shell to a lower shell, it gives off energy,
either in the form of a photon or by kinetic energy and knocking another electron to
a higher shell.
• Binding energies are greater for atoms with a greater number of protons in the
nucleus (i.e., a higher atomic number) because they have a higher positive nuclear
charge, and therefore a greater hold on the orbiting electrons.
• If an electron gains more energy than the binding energy, it can escape from the
attraction of the nucleus and leave the atom. This is called ionization .
• The resulting atom has a net positive charge because it has one less electron than it
has protons — i.e., it is a positive ion.
23.
24. Energy levels
• An electron can also move between shells of different binding energies.
• This happens when an electron gains enough energy to move from one (sub-) shell
to another, but not quite enough to escape the atom completely.
• Each (sub-) shell can therefore be seen as a fixed energy level and electrons can only
exist in these shells if they possess that amount of energy.
• The energy levels are fixed for any atom.
25. • As well as moving from a lower energy level to a higher energy level by gaining
energy from somewhere, electrons can move the other way and release their excess
energy. 1 electron volt (eV) is equal to 1.602 x10 -19 Joules.
26. Electromagnetism, electromagnetic radiation and the electromagnetic spectrum
• There are four fundamental forces of nature:
✓Gravity,
✓Electromagnetism,
✓Weak interaction,
✓Strong interaction.
• They are termed ‘fundamental’ because, they cannot be explained or picked apart
by other forces.
• In order of descending strength these are:
27. 1. Strong Nuclear Force:
✓ The strongest force in nature; “glues” the nucleus together.
✓ Holds the nucleus together, counters the repulsive effect of protons’ positive
charge.
28. 2. Electromagnetic (Coulombic) Force:
✓ ~1/100 as strong as the strong force.
✓ Opposites attract. Electrons are attracted by the positively charged nucleus and
are more attracted as they get closer; Valence electrons are not strongly attracted,
and their movements are responsible for all chemical reactions.
✓ Protons repel each other within the nucleus but are held in place by the strong
force.
29. 3. Weak Nuclear Force:
✓ ~1/1,000,000 as strong as the strong force.
✓ Works inside particles (between quarks) and is responsible for radioactive decay.
4. Gravity:
✓ ~1ᵡ10−39
as strong as the strong force.
✓Not important on the atomic scale
31. • Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy transfer though space as a
combination of electrical and magnetic fields.
• A moving electrical field generates a varying magnetic field and vice versa. These
combined moving fields form the electromagnetic wave.
• The inexplicable feature of electromagnetic radiation is that it sometimes behaves as
waves and sometimes behaves as particles — summed up in the term ‘wave-particle
duality’.
32.
33. The wave model of electromagnetic radiation
• Electromagnetic radiation causes effects that suggest it behaves as waves.
• For example, it exhibits reflection, refraction and interference.
• All electromagnetic waves travel at a velocity of 3 × 10 8 metres per second in a
vacuum.
34. Waves
• Waves are a series of peaks and troughs and have definable features: Wavelength,
Frequency, Energy.
• Wavelength is the distance between two successive crests or troughs. The symbol is λ and
it is measured in meters.
• Frequency is the number of waves passing a particular point in unit time. The symbol is ν
and the unit is number per second or hertz (Hz).
• The amplitude can be thought of as the energy of the wave
35.
36. The particle behavior of electromagnetic radiation
• Electromagnetic radiation also behaves as particles.
• These particles are discrete packets of energy and are called photons.
✓The energy of these photons is proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic
wave to which they are linked. So, a short wavelength relates to high energy photons
and a long wavelength to low energy photons.
• There is an equation that relates the energy and frequency — the Planck-Einstein
equation,
✓E=h. v
37. ✓where E is energy, h is Planck's constant (6.626 × 10 −34 Joules per second (J s -1 ))
and v is frequency.
• So, if frequency is the velocity divided by the wavelength,
✓E=h. c / λ
✓where c is the speed of light and λ is the wavelength of the wave.
• In the realm of electromagnetic radiation, the velocity is constant, so frequency and
wavelength vary together.
• At high frequencies and short wavelengths, and therefore higher energies,
electromagnetic radiation has more particle-like behavior.
38. • The range of frequency and wavelengths is called the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Humans have evolved to detect part of this spectrum — visible light.
• The rest of the electromagnetic spectrum on either side of either side of visible light
cannot be sensed.
39. The electromagnetic spectrum
• comprises all types of electromagnetic radiation, ranging from radio waves (low
energy, long wavelength, low frequency) to ionizing radiations (high energy, short
wavelength, high frequency).
• In order of increasing energy: Radio waves! Microwaves !infrared! rainbow colors,
light ! UV rays ! x-rays, gamma rays and Cosmic rays.
✓As a side-note, UV radiation can still cause chemical reactions by exciting valence
electrons, altering chemical bonds without actually ionizing.
✓Therefore, sun-tanning is bad and still cancer-causing even though there is no
“ionizing” radiation involved.
40.
41.
42. • Electromagnetic radiation can also be subdivided into ionizing and nonionizing
radiations.
Types of nonionizing electromagnetic radiation
•Radio waves
•Microwaves
•Infrared light
•Visible light
•Ultraviolet light
43. Types of Ionizing electromagnetic waves :
• Gamma rays: Photons resulting from nuclear transitions.
• Annihilation quanta: Photons resulting from positron–electron annihilation.
• Characteristic(fluorescence)x rays : Photons resulting from electron transitions
between atomic shells.
• Bremsstrahlung x rays: Photons resulting from electron–nucleus Coulomb
interactions.
44. Common features of electromagnetic radiation :
• It propagates in a straight line.
• It travels at the speed of light (nearly 300,000 km/s).
• It transfers energy to the medium through which it passes, and the amount of
energy transferred correlates positively with the frequency and negatively with the
wavelength of the radiation.
• The energy of the radiation decreases as it passes through a material, due to
absorption and scattering, and this decrease in energy is negatively correlated with
the square of the distance traveled through the material.
45. The Essence of Radioactivity
• The sub-atomic particles exist in a particular arrangement.
• The amount of energy in the particles can vary with the arrangement.
• They will always try to settle in an arrangement that has the lowest energy
configuration.
• Some nuclides have unstable nuclear arrangements and shift to a more stable
arrangement over time.
46. • While undergoing this rearrangement they emit one of the following:
✓An alpha particle: consisting of two protons and two neutrons.
✓A beta particle: an electron.
✓A gamma ray: a packet of electromagnetic energy i.e. a photon.
47. • Any element that undergoes this process is called radioactive, and the phenomenon
is called radioactivity.
✓Another way of looking at radioactive materials is that they continuously emit
energy in the form of the alpha particles, beta particles or electromagnetic waves.
• Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of the nucleus of an atom from which either
alpha, beta or gamma rays are emitted, though all processes may be occurring
simultaneously in a sample of radioactive material.
48. Radioactive decay
•The property of unstable nuclides during which they undergo a spontaneous
transformation within the nucleus. This change results in the emission of energetic
particles or electromagnetic energy from the atoms and the production of an
altered nucleus.
49. • Radionuclides may decay by any one or a combination of six processes:
✓ Spontaneous fission
✓α-decay
✓ β–-decay
✓ β+-decay
✓ electron capture
✓ isomeric transition (IT)
•In all decay processes, the energy, mass, and charge of radionuclides must be
conserved.
50. Spontaneous Fission
• Fission is a process in which a heavy nucleus breaks down into two fragments typically in
the ratio of 60:40.
• This process is accompanied by the emission of two or three neutrons with a mean
energy of 1.5 MeV and a release of nearly 200-MeV energy, which appears mostly as
heat.
• Fission in heavy nuclei can occur spontaneously or by bombardment with energetic
particles.
52. Alpha Decay (α-Decay)
• Usually heavy nuclei such as Radon, Uranium, Neptunium, and so forth decay by α-
particle emission.
• The α-particle is a helium ion with two electrons stripped off the atom and contains two
protons and two neutrons bound together in the nucleus.
• In α-decay, the atomic number of the parent nuclide is therefore reduced by 2 and the
mass number by 4.
53. • An example of α-decay is :
• An α-transition may be followed by β–-emission or γ-ray emission or both.
• The α-particles are monoenergetic, and their range in matter is very short (on the order of
10−6 cm) and is approximately 0.03 mm in body tissue.
54. Beta Decay (β–-Decay)
• When a nucleus is “neutron rich” (i.e., has a higher N /Z ratio compared to the stable
nucleus), it decays by β−-particle emission along with an antineutrino.
• An antineutrino ( v ) is an entity almost without mass and charge and is primarily needed
to conserve energy in the decay.
• In β−-decay, a neutron (n) essentially decays into a proton (p) and a β−-particle; for
example,
55. Positron or β+-Decay
• Nuclei that are “neutron deficient” or “proton rich” (i.e., have an N /Z ratio less than that
of the stable nuclei) can decay by β+-particle emission accompanied by the emission of a
neutrino (v), which is an opposite entity of the antineutrino.
56. Electron Capture
• When a nucleus has a smaller N /Z ratio compared to the stable nucleus, as an alternative
to β+-decay, it may also decay by the so-called electron capture process, in which an
electron is captured from the extranuclear electron shells, thus transforming a proton into
a neutron and emitting a neutrino.
57. Isomeric Transition
• A nucleus can remain in several excited energy states above the ground state that are
defined by quantum mechanics.
• All these excited states are referred to as isomeric states and decay to the ground state,
with a lifetime of fractions of picoseconds to many years.
• The decay of an upper excited state to a lower excited state is called the isomeric transition.
58. • In isomeric transition, the energy difference between the energy states may appear as γ-
rays.
• When isomeric states are long lived, they are referred to as metastable states and can be
detected by appropriate instruments.
• The metastable state is denoted by “m” as in 99mTc.
•In radioactive decay, particle emission or electron capture may be followed by isomeric
transition.
59.
60. Units of radioactivity
• The activity of a quantity of radioactive material is expressed in terms of the number of
spontaneous nuclear transformations taking place in unit time.
• The SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq), a special name for the reciprocal second (s-1).
•The expression of activity in terms of the becquerel therefore indicates the number of
transformations per second.
•The historical unit of activity is the curie.
•The curie (Ci) is equivalent to 3.7 x 1010 Bq.
61. Activity and half-life
• The activity of a radioactive material is measured as the number of nuclei that disintegrate
per second.
• The SI unit of activity is the becquerel, the symbol is Bq.
• The activity of any radioactive material reduces with time.
• The activity at any time is dependent on the number of nuclei present at that time. The
proportion of nuclei undergoing disintegration remains constant. This leads to a pattern of
decay called ‘ exponential decay ’.
•Half-life is defined as the time for a radioactive material to lose half of its activity, which is
the same as saying it is the time for half the nuclei in a material to decay.
62.
63. The four “isos”:
• Isotope: same number of protons, different neutrons. Same chemical behavior, different
mass, and different nuclear decay properties.
✓Ex: 125 I and 131 I, both behave like iodine but have different half-lives.
• Isotone: same number of neutrons, different protons.
✓Rarely used.
• Isomer: same nuclide, different energy state (excited vs. non-excited)
✓Isomers release their energy through gamma decay.
✓Ex: 99mTc decays to 99Tc, releasing its excess energy without changing the
✓number of protons or neutrons.
64. • Isobar: same number of nucleons, different nuclide (more protons and less neutrons, or vice
versa).
✓“bar” = same mass—think barbell.
✓Beta decay and electron capture always result in an isobar.
✓Ex: 131I decays to 131Xe, which has the same mass number but is a different nuclide and has
different chemical properties.
66. Radiation
• It is the propagation of energy from a radiative source to another medium.
• This transmission of energy can take the form of particulate radiation or non
particulate radiation (i.e., electromagnetic waves).
• The photon
✓ is the smallest unit of electromagnetic radiation .
✓ Photons have no mass.
67. Classification of radiation
• Depending on its ability to ionize matter radiation is classified into two main
categories:
✓Ionizing radiation
✓Nonionizing radiation
68. • Ionizing radiation
✓Can ionize matter either directly or indirectly because its quantum energy exceeds
the ionization potential of atoms and molecules of the absorber.
✓The ionization energy (IE), also known as ionization potential (IP), of atoms is
defined as the minimum energy required for ionizing an atom and is typically
specified in electron volts (eV).
✓In nature IE ranges from a few electron volts (∼4 eV) for alkali elements to 24.6 eV
for helium (noble gas) with IE for all other atoms lying between the two extremes.
69. ✓ Ionizing radiation can be further divided into
➢ Directly ionizing radiation: Comprises charged particles (electrons, protons, α-
particles, heavy ions) that deposit energy in the absorber through a direct one-step
process involving Coulomb interactions between the directly ionizing charged
particle and orbital electrons of the atoms in the absorber.
70. ➢ Indirectly ionizing radiation:
• Comprises non particulate radiation (photons such as x-rays and γ-rays) that deposit
energy in the absorber through a two-step process as follows:
✓In the first step a charged particle is released in the absorber (photons release either
electrons or electron/positron pairs, neutrons release protons or heavier ions).
✓ In the second step, the released charged particles deposit energy to the absorber
through direct Coulomb interactions with orbital electrons of the atoms in the
absorber.
71.
72. Non-ionizing radiation:
• cannot ionize matter because its energy is lower than the ionization energy of atoms
or molecules of the absorber.
• The term non-ionizing radiation thus refers to all types of electromagnetic radiation
that do not carry enough energy per quantum to ionize atoms or molecules of the
absorber.
• Near ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared photons, microwaves, and radio
waves are examples of non-ionizing radiation.