1. Game Engine Rendering Pipeline

2. Overview

Game Engine

The Renderer

Rendering Workflow

Coordinate System

Basic Graphic Pipeline Flow

Culling Overview

Geometry

Rendering/Rasterization

Lighting

Shading

Anti-Aliasing

Shaders

Textures

Compression Format

Memory Usage

Physics Engine

In-Game Effects

Sound

Networking

Scripting

A.I.

User Interface (U.I.)

3. Engine v/s Game
Many people confuse the engine with the entire game. That would be like confusing an automobile
engine with an entire car. You can take the engine out of the car, and build another shell around it,
and use it again.
The game part would be all the content (models, animations, sounds, AI, and physics) which are called
'assets', and the code required specifically to make that game work, like the AI, or how the controls work.
A game engine is the core software component of a video game or other interactive application with
real-time graphics.
Core functionality typically provided by a game engine:

Rendering engine (2D or 3D graphics)

Physics engine (Collision detection and collision response)

Sound

Scripting

Animation

Artificial intelligence

Networking

Streaming

Memory management

Threading, and a

Scene graph.

4. Game Engine
Game engines provide a suite of visual development tools in addition to reusable software components.
These tools are generally provided in an integrated development environment* to enable simplified, rapid
development of games in a data-driven manner.
*An integrated development environment (IDE) is a software application that provides comprehensive
facilities to computer programmers for software development. An IDE normally consists of a source
code editor, a compiler and/or interpreter, build automation tools, and (usually) a debugger.

5. The Renderer
It visualizes the scene for the player / viewer so he or she can make appropriate decisions based upon what's
displayed.
In a general sense, the renderer's job is to create the visual flare that will make a game stand apart from the herd.
3D graphics is essentially the art of the creating the most while doing the least, since additional 3D processing is
often expensive both in terms of processor cycles and memory bandwidth.
The business of getting pixels on screen these days involves 3D accelerator cards, API's, three-dimensional
math, and an understanding of how 3D hardware works.
For consoles, the same kind of knowledge is required, but at least with consoles you aren't trying to hit a moving
target. A console's hardware configuration is a frozen "snapshot in time", and unlike the PC, it doesn't change at
all over the lifetime of the console.
The renderer is where over 50% of the CPU's processing
time is spent, and where game developers will often be
judged the most harshly.

6. Rendering Workflow
Because there are so many calculations to be done and volumes of data to be handled, the entire process is broken
down into component steps, sometimes called stages.
One of the art-forms in 3D graphics is to elegantly reduce visual detail in a scene so as to gain better performance,
but do it in such a way that the viewer doesn't notice the loss of quality.
With the number of steps involved and their complexity, the ordering of these stages of the pipeline can vary
between implementations.
3D Pipeline - High-Level Overview
1. Application/Scene
* Scene/Geometry database traversal
* Movement of objects, and aiming and movement of view camera
* Animated movement of object models
* Description of the contents of the 3D world
* Object Visibility Check including possible Occlusion Culling
* Select Level of Detail (LOD)

7. Rendering Workflow
2. Geometry
* Transforms (rotation, translation, scaling)
* Transform from Model Space to World Space (Direct3D)
* Transform from World Space to View Space
* View Projection
* Trivial Accept/Reject Culling
* Back-Face Culling (can also be done later in Screen Space) Lighting
* Perspective Divide - Transform to Clip Space
* Clipping
* Transform to Screen Space
3. Triangle Setup
* Back-face Culling (or can be done in view space before lighting)
* Slope/Delta Calculations
* Scan-Line Conversion
4. Rendering / Rasterization
* Shading
* Texturing
* Fog
* Alpha Translucency Tests
* Depth Buffering
* Antialiasing (optional)
* Display

8. Coordinate System
Working with Space
In a 3D rendering system, multiple Cartesian coordinate systems (x- (left/right), y- (up/down)
and z-axis (near/far)) are used at different stages of the pipeline.
While used for different though related purposes, each coordinate system provides a precise
mathematical method to locate and represent objects in the space. And not surprisingly, each
of these coordinate systems is referred to as a "space."
Model Space: where each model is in its own coordinate system, whose origin is some
point on the model
World Space: where models are placed in the actual 3D world, in a unified world coordinate system.
View Space (also called Camera Space): in this space, the view camera is positioned by the application
(through the graphics API) at some point in the 3D world coordinate system, if it is being used.
The view volume is actually created by a projection, which as
the name suggests, "projects the scene" in front of the camera.
In this sense, it's a kind of role reversal in that the camera now
becomes a projector, and the scene's view volume is defined in
relation to the camera.

9. Coordinate System
Deeper into Space
Clip Space: Similar to View Space, but the frustum is now "squished" into a unit cube, with the x and y
coordinates normalized to a range between –1 and 1, and z is between 0 and 1, which simplifies
clipping calculations.
Screen Space: where the 3D image is converted into x and y 2D screen coordinates for 2D display.
'z' coordinates are still retained by the graphics systems for depth/Z-buffering and
back-face culling before the final render.

10. 3D Pipeline Data Flow
It is useful to note that most operations in the application/scene stage and the early geometry stage of the pipeline
are done per vertex, whereas culling and clipping is done per triangle, and rendering operations are done per
pixel.
Another advantage of pipelining is that because no data is passed from one vertex to another in the geometry stage
or from one pixel to another in the rendering stage, chipmakers have been able to implement multiple pixel pipes
and gain considerable performance boosts using parallel processing of these independent entities.
Stage1. Application/Scene

The renderer traverses the geometry database to gather necessary object
information (includes object movement, animated movement, and aiming
and movement of camera object) that are going to change in the next frame
of animation.

"occlusion culling", a visibility test that determines whether an object is
partially or completely occluded (covered) by some object in front of it.
If it is, the occluded object, or the part of it that is occluded is discarded.

11. Culling Overview
CULLING
Visibility culling algorithms reduce the number of polygons sent down the rendering pipeline
based on the simple principle that if something is not seen, it does not have to be drawn.
The simplest approach to culling is to divide the world up into sections, with each section having a list of other
sections that can be seen. That way you only display what's possible to be seen from any given point.
How you create the list of possible view sections is the tricky bit. Again, there are many ways to do this, using
BSP trees, Portals and so on.
View Frustum Culling
View volume is usually defined by six planes, namely the front, back, left, right, top, and bottom clipping planes,
which together form a cut pyramid.
Front and back clipping planes may be defined to lie at the viewer point and
infinity, respectively. If a polygon is entirely outside the pyramid, it cannot
be visible and can be discarded. If it is partially inside, it is clipped to the
planes so that its outside parts are removed.

12. Culling Overview
Back-face culling
This primitive form of culling is based on the observation that if all objects in the world are closed, then the
polygons which don't face the viewer cannot be seen.
This directly translates to the vector angle between the direction where the
viewer is facing and the normal of the polygon: if the angle is more than 90
degrees, the polygon can be discarded.
Cell-based occlusion culling
Cell-based occlusion culling methods are based on the assumption that the game
world can be divided to cells which are connected to each other using portals.
Clearly, if a portal is not seen from a given point of view, then none of the cells
behind the portal can be seen and they can thus be culled away. There are two
dominating forms of cell-based engines in use today: BSP and "portal" engines.
Binary Space Partitioning (BSP)- Space is split with a plane to two half spaces,
which are again recursively split. This can be used to force a strict back-to-front
drawing ordering

13. 3D Pipeline Data Flow

Level of Detail (LOD) involves decreasing the complexity
of a 3D object representation as it moves away from the viewer
or according other metrics such as object importance, eye-space
speed or position.
The Statue (in our case) distance to the view camera will dictate
which LOD level gets used. If it's very near, the highest resolution
LOD gets used, but if it's just barely visible and far from the view
camera, the lowest resolution LOD model would be used, and for
locations between the two, the other LOD levels would be used.
Level of detail techniques increases the efficiency of rendering by decreasing the workload on graphics
pipeline stages, usually vertex transformations.

14. Geometry
Stage2. Geometry

Objects get moved from frame to frame to create the illusion of movement, and in a 3D
world, objects can be moved or manipulated using four operations broadly referred to as
transforms.

Transformation

Rotation

Scaling

Space to Space- For the final rendering of models/geometry, the coordinate space is
translate from object space to world space and then to view space.
After the transform to view space, many interesting things begin to happen.
Trivial Matters
Viewing frustum
View frustum is the region of space in the modeled world that may appear on the screen
The first step in reducing the working set of triangles to be processed (rendered) is to
cull those that are completely outside of the view volume.
This is known as View frustum culling.
The next operation is called back-face culling (BFC), which as the name
suggests, is an operation that discards triangles that have surfaces that are
facing away from the view camera.

15. Bounding Volumes
Getting Clipped and Gaining Perspective
Clipping- is the operation to discard only the parts of triangles
that in some way partially or fully fall outside
the view volume (camera field of view).

Good clipping strategy is important in the development of video games
in order to maximize the game's frame rate and visual quality.
Bounding Volume Hierarchies (BVHs)
Useful for numerous tasks - including efficient culling and speeding up collision detection between objects.
Examples of tests where BV’s are applied are:
• testing if a point is inside an object.
• testing an object for intersection with a line (ray).
• testing if an object intersects a plane or lies above/below.
• testing an object for intersection with and/or inclusion within a volume.

16. Setting the Table
Stage3. Triangle Setup
Think of triangle setup as the prelude to the rendering stage of the pipeline, because it "sets the table" for the
rendering operations that will follow.

First off, the triangle setup operation computes the slope (or steepness) of a triangle edge using vertex
information at each of edge's two endpoints.
(The slope is often called delta x/delta y, dx/dy, Dx/Dy, or literally change in x/change in y).

Using the slope information, an algorithm called a digital differential analyzer (DDA) can calculate x,y
values to see which pixels each triangle side (line segment) touches.
What it really does is determine how much the x value of the pixel touched by a given triangle side
changes per scan line, and increments it by that value on each subsequent scan-line.
For every single pixel increment along the x-axis, we must increment the y-axis value of the triangle
edge by Dy.

Color and Depth values are interpolated for each pixel.

In addition, the texture coordinates are calculated for use during texture mapping.

17. Rendering/Rasterization
Stage4. Rendering/Rasterization
Lighting
It's one of those things that when it works, you don't notice it, but when it doesn't, you notice it all too much.
It usually happens once the 3D scene has been transformed into view space.
A geometric light is based upon very simplified lighting and reflection models, which often have little to do with
how lights behave in the real world, but the net effect is deemed sufficient for the purposes of real-time 3D.

"per-vertex" and "per-pixel" lighting
The advantage of per-pixel lighting is its granularity, especially true in low triangle count scenes with specular
reflections where the realism of per-vertex lighting can diminish considerably.
The obvious downside to per-pixel lighting is its considerably larger computational workload.

18. Rendering/Rasterization
Vertex Lighting

Determine how many polygons are touching one vertex and then take the mean of all the resultant polygons
orientations (a normal) and assign that normal to the vertex.

Each vertex for a given polygon will point in slightly different directions, so you wind
up gradating or interpolating light colors across a polygon, in order to get smoother
lighting.

Advantage: Hardware can often help do this in a faster manner using hardware
transform and lighting (T&L).

Drawback: It doesn't produce shadowing. For instance, both arms on a model will
be lit the same way, even if the light is on the right side of the model,
and the left arm should be left in shadow cast by the body.

19. Lighting Thoughts
Per Pixel Normal Map based Lighting

Encode tangent-space normals for the surface in a texture to compute the lighting equation at each pixel, rather than at each
vertex.

Object space normal maps are also possible and are generally used to light dynamic objects.

There is also a variation on normal map lighting called parallax mapping which encodes an additional height
map value into the normal texture in order to simulate the parallax effect.
Performing normal map lighting is a three-step approach:

Normal Map is created,applied to the model and exported with tangent space information.

A tangent matrix must be created to transform all positional lighting information into tangent space. The tangent
space matrix is a 3x3 matrix made up of the vertex's tangent, binormal and normal vectors.

The color contribution of each light is calculated in the pixel shader using the normal information fetched from
the normal map and the tangent space lighting vectors computed from data transformed on the vertex shader.
Space

Normal maps are usually stored as a representation in one of two spaces – either in model space, or in the local tangent space of
each triangle.

Normal maps specified in model space must generally have three components(tangent, normal and binormal) since all directions
must be representable.

Normal maps in tangent space can be specified with only two components – since the tangent space of the triangle describes a
hemispherical region the third component can be derived in a pixel shader.

20. Let There be Light!
Limitations of existing lighting models
Interpolated lighting (Vertex lighting)

Because vertex lighting works by interpolating the colors attained at each vertex, this scenario would result
in the quad being equally lit across its entire surface (or not lit if the point light doesn't reach the edges).

In order to get around this problem, the quad would have to be tessellated in order to achieve a falloff from
the center to the edges . This is counterproductive for the art team and is a problem that can be easily
rectified using a per-pixel lighting approach.
Two faces model Tessellated model
Light count restrictions ( Normal map lighting)

All lighting calculations must be performed in the same coordinate system.

The number of light sources that a surface can be lit by is limited to the number of registers the vertex shader
can pass to the pixel shader.

21. Let There be Light!
Unified per-pixel lighting solution
Interpolate normals, not colors

Instead of calculating the color for the vertex, we will now simply transform
the normal into world space, and then place it into a register alongside our
emissive color for treatment on the pixel shader.

If doing point lighting, we will also need to send the world space position
of the vertex across the shader so we can get an interpolated world space
pixel value. We then simply perform the lighting calculation on the pixel Point light on low poly surface with
per-pixel lighting (4 vertices)
shader much the same way that we did it on the vertex shader.
Perform normal map lighting in world space

Instead of using matrix to convert data into tangent space, we will compute the inverse tangent space
matrix and multiply that with the world space matrix. This will allow us to transform the tangent space
normal into a world space normal that we can then use to perform all of our lighting calculations.

If a scenario comes up where a set of vertices share a normal, but not tangent information, shading
seams will show up on the geometry

22. Shadows Issues
Anatomy of shadow

First, a per-vertex or per-pixel light source must exist

Next, the light source must strike an object that casts a shadow, called the occluder.

Finally, the surface onto which the shadow is being cast which is the receiver.
Shadows themselves have two parts:

umbra, which is the inner part of the shadow

penumbra, which is the outer and border portion of the shadow.
The penumbra creates the difference between hard and soft shadows. With hard shadows, the shadow ends abruptly,
and looks unnatural, whereas with soft shadows, the penumbra transitions from the color of the shadow
(usually black) to the adjacent pixel color,creating a more realistic shadow.
Shadow techniques

Projected Shadows

Created by having a light source act as a projector, which then "projects" a shadow onto the receiver surface.

One downside to this method is that the receiver has to be a planar (flat) surface, or serious rendering errors can
occur.

One speedup technique is to render the projected shadow polygon into a shadow texture, which can be applied
to the receiver surface, and subsequently reused, providing that neither the light source nor the occluder moves,
as shadows are not view- or scene-dependent.

23. Shadows Issues
Shadow Volumes

Stencil buffer is an area of video memory that contains one to eight bits of
information about each pixel of the scene, and this information can be used to
mask certain areas of the scene to create shadow effects.

Shadow volumes create a separate frustum, and place the point light source
at the top of the frustum and project into it. The resulting intersection of the
shadow frustum and the view frustum creates a cylindrical volume inside
the view frustum. Polygons that fall within this cylindrical volume will cast
shadows upon receiver objects (of any shape) that are aligned with the
direction the light rays that are being cast from the shadow-generating object.

This technique cast shadow on any object rather than just flat surface.

24. Shading Techniques

Made in the Shade
The rendering engine will shade the models based on various shading algorithms. These shading calculations
can range in their demand from fairly modest (Flat and Gouraud), to much more demanding (Phong).
Flat Shading: Takes the color values from a triangle's three vertices and averages those values.
The average value is then used to shade the entire triangle.
This method is very inexpensive in terms of computations, but this method's visual cost is that individual triangles are
clearly visible, and it disrupts the illusion of creating a single surface out of multiple triangles.
Gouraud Shading: Takes the lighting values at each of a triangle's three vertices, then interpolates those values
across the surface of the triangle.
One of the main advantages to Gouraud is that it smoothes out triangle edges on mesh surfaces, giving objects a more
realistic appearance.
Phong Shading:Phong shading uses these shading
normals, which are stored at each vertex,
to interpolate the shading normal at each
pixel in the triangle.
A shading normal (also called a vertex normal) actually is an
average of the surface normals of its surrounding triangles.

25. Anti Aliasing
Aliasing
Aliasing is the staircase effect at the edge of a line or area of color when it's
displayed by an array of discrete pixels.
Aliasing occurs due to inappropriate sampling rate
Sampling Rate- Defines the number of samples per second (or per other unit)
taken from a continuous signal to make a discrete signal.
Antialiasing
Smoothes the staircase effect that occurs when diagonal or curved lines or borders
are drawn on raster displays consisting of square or rectangular pixels.
Super-Sampling Techniques

Ordered Grid super-sampling (OGSS)
Sub-sample positions within a given pixel. The extra samples are
positioned in an ordered grid shape. The sub-samples are aligned horizontally and
vertically, creating a matrix of points. These sub-samples are thus located inside
the original pixel in a regular pattern.

Jittered Grid Super Sampling (JGSS)
Similar to Ordered Grid Super-Sampling in that extra samples are stored per pixel, but the
difference between the two is the position of the sub-samples. The sub-sample grid is "jittered," or
shifted, off of the axis.

26. Overdraw Issue
While rendering in games a pixel we have drawn may be overdrawn by a pixel that is closer to the camera and this
can happen several times before the closest pixel is actually figured out once the entire scene has been drawn.
A graphic could fill a pixel several times each frame. This is known as Overdraw issue.
Possible solutions
1. Depth Complexity

Refers to the number of pixels that compete, via the depth test, to be written to a particular entry in the back
buffer.

Depth complexity can be used to do performance analysis and indicate which pixels need to be specially rendered.
2. Z-buffering
An algorithm used in 3-D graphics to determine which objects, or
parts of objects, are visible and which are hidden behind other objects.
With Z-buffering, the graphics processor stores the Z-axis value of
each pixel in a special area of memory called the Z-buffer . Different
objects can have the same x- and y-coordinate values, but with
different z-coordinate values. The object with the lowest z-coordinate
value is in front of the other objects, and therefore that's the one that's
displayed

27. Shaders
Vertex and Pixel Shaders
A vertex shader is a graphics processing function used to add special effects to objects in a 3D environment by
performing mathematical operations on the objects' vertex data before submitting them to the card to render.
Vertices may also be defined by colors, coordinates, textures, and lighting characteristics. Vertex Shaders don't
actually change the type of data; they simply change the values of the data, so that a vertex emerges with a
different color, different textures, or a different position in space.
Pixel shaders are routines that are performed per pixel when the texture is rendered that defines how pixels would
look when they are rendered
This allows you to do some simple pixel effects from making textures in the distance out of focus, adding heat
haze, and creating internal reflection for water effects to complex ones that simulate bump mapping, shadows,
specular highlights, translucency and other complex phenomena.
The pixel shader is executed for each pixel rendered, and independently from the other pixels. Taken in isolation, a
pixel shader alone can't produce very complex effects, because it operates only on a single pixel, without any
knowledge of scene's geometry or neighbouring pixels.

28. Textures

Multiple textures can take up a lot of memory, and it helps to manage their size with various techniques.

Texture compression is one way of making texture data smaller, while retaining the picture information.
Compressed textures take up less space on the game CD, and more importantly, in memory and on your 3D card.
MIP Mapping
Another technique used by game engines to reduce the memory footprint
and bandwidth demands of textures is to use MIP maps. The technique of
MIP mapping involves preprocessing a texture to create multiple copies,
where each successive copy is one-half the size of the prior copy.
Multiple Textures and Bump Mapping
Single texture maps make a large difference in overall 3D graphics realism, but using multiple textures can achieve
even more impressive effects. Bump mapping is an old technology that is all about creating a texture that shows the
way light falls on a surface, to show bumps or crevices in that surface.

29. Light Map
A lightmap is a 3D engine light data structure which contains the brightness of surfaces in a video game.
Lightmaps are precomputed and used for static objects.

The most common methods of lightmapping are:

Precompute vertex lighting by using distance from each vertex to a light,

Multi-texturing to apply a second texture which contains the lumel data.

But if you have dynamic lights then you will have to regenerate the light maps every frame, modifying them
according to how your dynamic lights may have moved.
Pre-processed lights don't affect the animated models correctly--they take their overall light value for the whole

model from the polygon they are standing on--and dynamic lights will be applied to give the right effect.

Using a hybrid lighting approach is a tradeoff that most people don't notice, but it usually gives an effect that
looks "right".

30. Cache it Right
Cache Thrash = Bad Thing

Texture cache management is vital to making game engines go fast.

If you get into a situation where you've got textures being swapped in and out of your graphics card's memory,
you've got yourself a case of texture cache thrashing.

Often APIs will dump every texture when this happens, resulting in every one of them having to be reloaded next
frame, and that's time consuming and wasteful. To the gamer, this will cause frame rate stutters as the API reloads
the texture cache.

31. Cache Management
 API Instruction: Coding API (Rendering Engine) to upload and store a texture to the card once instead of
swapping in and out many times. An API like OpenGL actually usually handles texture caching and means that the
API handles what textures are stored on the card, and what's left in main memory, based on rules like how often the
texture is accessed.
 Another texture cache management technique is texture compression.
Introduction to Texture Compression
The texture images that are being used now-a-days in games are higher in resolution, numerous in numbers and
heavy with details. Techniques like bump mapping, normal mapping, etc further complicate things because:
1) the resolution of images are large in size
2) normal maps have to be huge in order to fully cover a model object with a decent level of quality.
By compressing texture images we can:
1) reduce the amount of memory that each image requires
2) increase the visual quality of normal map images (In some cases)
3) boost an application's performance (not much data to process)

32. Compression Formats
Texture Compression Algorithms
* DXT (S3TC) *3Dc * A8L8
DXT Compression Format

Use a lossy compression that can reduce an image's size by a ratio of 4:1 or 6:1.

Standard part of the Direct3D API and are available for the OpenGL API through the
ARB_texture_compression and GL_EXT_texture_compression_s3tc extensions.

Good to use on decal texture images, especially high resolution.

They were not designed with normal maps in mind, and can have horrible results.

The DXT compression formats are made up of DXT1, DXT2,
DXT3, DXT4 and DXT5.
DXT1 Format

The DXT1 format compresses RGB images by a factor of
6:1, for an average of 4 bits per texel.

DXT1 does not usually produce good results for normal maps.
Without compression With DXT1 Compression

33. Compression Formats
DXT2/3 Format

DXT2/3 is the same as DXT1 but it uses an additional 4-bits for the alpha channel, thus doubling the size
of the image.

In the DXT2 format the data is pre-multiplied by the alpha channel while in the DXT3 it is not.
DXT4/5 Format

The DXT5 format compresses an RGBA image by a factor of 4:1, using a byte per texel on average.

The advantage of DXT5 over DXT1 is that it supports an alpha channel.

Interpolate the alpha data when compressing the images.
DX10Name Description Alpha Pre-multiplied? Compression ratio Texture Type
DXT1 1-bit Alpha / Opaque N/A 8:1 Simple non-alpha
DXT2 Explicit alpha Yes 4:1 Sharp alpha
DXT3 Explicit alpha No 4:1 Sharp alpha
DXT4 Interpolated alpha Yes 4:1 Gradient alpha
DXT5 Interpolated alpha No 4:1 Gradient alpha

34. 3D Card Memory Usage

Most 3D cards these days handle 32-bit color, which is 8 bits for red, 8 for blue, 8 for green, and 8 for
transparency of any given pixel.

That's 256 shades of red, blue, and green in combination, which allows for 16.7 million colors-- that's
pretty much all the colors you and I are going to be able to see on a monitor.
What is the need for 64-bit color?If we can't see the difference what's the point...??
Let's say we have a point on a model where several lights are falling, all of different colors. We take
the original color of the model and then apply one light to it, which changes the color value. Then we
apply another light, which changes it further. The problem here is that with only 8 bits to play with,
after applying 4 lights, the 8 bits just aren't enough to give us a good resolution and representation of
the final color.
Card Memory v/s Texture Memory (Why is card memory too important?)
Running your game using a 32-bit screen at 1280x1024 with a 32-bit Z-buffer means:
1280x1024 pixels=1,310,720 pixels
1,310,720 pixels x 8bytes=10,485,760 pixels (4 bytes per pixel for the screen, 4 bytes per pixel for the z-
buffer)
1280x1024x12(back buffer)= 15,728,640 bytes, or 15MB.
Obviously if you drop the textures down to 16-bit instead of 32-bit, you could push twice as many lower
resolutions across AGP. Also, if you ran at a lower color resolution per pixel, then more memory is
available on the card for keeping often used textures around (caching textures). But you can never
actually predict how users will set up their system. If they have a card that runs at high resolutions and
color depths, then chances are they'll set their cards that way.

35. Physics Engine
A physics engine is a computer program that simulates Newtonian physics models, using variables such
as mass, velocity, friction and wind resistance. It can simulate and predict effects under different
conditions that would approximate what happens in real life or in a fantasy world.
Physics engines have two core components:

Collision detection system,

Physics simulation component responsible for solving the forces affecting the simulated objects.
There are three major paradigms for physics simulation:
* Penalty methods, where interactions are commonly modeled as mass-spring systems. This type of
engine is popular for deformable, or soft-body physics.
* Constraint based methods, where constraint equations are solved that estimate physical laws.
* Impulse based methods, where impulses are applied to object interactions.
Soft Body physics Physics law of constrains Impulse based interaction

36. Physics in Games
Implementation of Physics

Character animation and collision

Bullet projectiles and similar systems

Water/Particle simulation

Cloth/Fur simulation
3D objects in a game are represented by two separate meshes or shapes:

Base mesh-highly detailed

Highly simplified mesh to represent the base mesh, known as Collision Mesh

Collision meshes are used to simplify physics calculations and speed up the FPS.
This may be a bounding box, sphere, or convex hull.

Generally a bounding box is used for broad phase collision detection to narrow down the number of possible
collisions before costly mesh on mesh collision detection is done in the narrow phase of collision detection.
Constrains in Physics Engine

Numbers precision representing the position of an object and the forces acting on that object

Framerate, or the number of moments in time per second when physics is calculated

37. In-game Effects
FOG
Based on the camera distance, far away objects becomes more and more 'milky' that means getting
brighter or become darker with increasing distance. This is known as Depth Cueing.
Particle System
Physically correct particle systems (PS) are designed to add few essential properties to the virtual world
like explosion, heat, shimmer, waterfall, etc.
Particle System is limited by:

fill rate or the CPU to graphics hardware (GPU) communication

transfer bandwidth of particle data from the simulation on the CPU to the rendering on the GPU
Two ways to simulate particles:

Use stateless PS- require a particle's data to be computed from its birth to its death by a closed form
function which is defined by a set of start values and the current time.

State-preserving PS- Allow using numerical, iterative integration methods to compute the particle
data from previous values and a changing environmental description (e.g. moving collider objects).
Simulation and Rendering Algorithm
The algorithm consists of six basic steps:
1. Process birth and death
2. Update velocities
3. Update positions
4. Sort for alpha blending (optional)
5. Transfer texture data to vertex data
6. Render particles

38. Sound System in Games
Sound and music in games are becoming increasingly important in recent years due to both advances in
the game genres people are playing and in technology.
In the previous generation of consoles, memory has been sparse enough to impact on the sample-rates, or
‘perceived quality’ of the audio content. It is certainly the case now, with advancements in audio
compression that sample rates can now rival those of a film soundtrack on the PS3 and 360.
To add to this, with the limited RAM sound memory of previous-generation consoles, the amount of
sounds that could physically be loaded and played at any one time was strictly limited. It is also now
the case that more sounds can be played simultaneously than they could on previous generation
consoles (more voices available) and around ten times more sounds can be loaded into RAM.
Music and sounds in a game can be :

2D sound - mono channel converted to stereo channel and passed on to both the speakers (Left and
Right)

3D sound- Separate sound samples for both the channels (Left and Right) and can vary in intensity

3D surround sound- Having 4 or more speakers attached to the game and the intensity/pitch vary
according to the placement of sound object and the camera distance.
Audio Design Document

OUTLINE/OBJECTIVES
It should contain a statement or two describing the goals and purpose of the audio for the game. It should
also describe the audio's proposed style and execution, as compared to the setting of the game.

39. Sound System in Games

RESEARCH
This section can prove to be valuable in looking back at past experiments on the project.Items that can be
included in this section can be file formats tested and used, in-game audio experiments, and especially
any proprietary audio research.

IMPLEMENTATION
Define a set of rules: permutations, and boundaries (limits) as to how the audio works on a more detailed
level. The subsections of this section should include at least A. Sound and B. Music Implementation
.
There should never be more than (8) unique sound effects playing at once, not including dialogue or
music.
Eg. of a Sound Engine:
Layer0- An ambient sound effect layer.
Layer1- A 3D sound engine, where monaural sounds can travel through a four-speaker system, complete
with a parameter list defining each sound's path, traveling speed, special effects, and so on.
Layer2- Ambient sounds generated from terrain and buildings, which play only occasionally, and are
randomly selected.
Layer3-Civilian, animal, monster, and all combat-related sounds are played here, including disaster
sounds, user interface sounds, and so on.
Layer4- Interactive music categories based on game events
Layer5- All narration and in-game dialogue for all characters.

40. Sound System in Games

CONTENT LIST
In any case, it's good idea to include a general outline of content, well before there is enough detail to
have an actual, formal list. Here is a generic example:
A. SOUND DESIGN
1. Action sounds
a. Explosions: 5-10, varying from small to large
b. Weapons: unknown, will know before 4/20/01 -- possibly 30-50 unique sounds for 15-25 weapons
c. Characters
i. human -- military: 5 unit types, 3-5 sounds each
ii. human -- civilian: unknown
iii. alien -- misc.: unknown
2. User interface
B. MUSIC
1. Setup mode
2. Mission panel
3. In-game music
4. win/lose music
C. DIALOGUE
1. in-game characters
2. narration
D. ADDITIONAL AUDIO-FOR-VIDEO CONTENT (marketing promotions, in-game animations)

41. Sound System in Games

SCHEDULE
Roughly scheduling the task to be done including:

Setting milestones

Who will do what

Simple deadlines

What's done and what's not
Ultimately, your game's audio design should translate into a rewarding, interactive experience, one that
blends effortlessly into the gameplay, graphics, and other components of the product. The real trick of
course, is how you specify it in your audio design document.

42. Coding Sound

Voice usage and Memory utilization issues are a sore point between the composer and coder.

The composer often has no way to accurately know how many voices are being used and the coder is
bitter that the composer is wasting voices and increasing overhead on the audio driver.

The composer needs to be aware of the limits of the materials they use to create the audio and the
coder needs to present all necessary information clearly and not hinder the creative process.
Voice Usage
Some methods to reduce voice utilization are volume culling, sound sphere radius reduction,
voice stealing by priority, instance capping and sub-mixing.
1) Volume Culling
Volume culling involves shutting down a voice when its volume reaches a certain threshold near zero. Done correctly, this
has the desirable side effect of clearing up the mix and reducing processor overhead. Done incorrectly, it can introduce
voice “popping” where it is easy to hear when voices get culled and possible thrashing when a voice hovers around the
threshold and is repeatedly stopped and started due to the culling algorithm. To reduce the possibility of clicks, the
voice is enveloped before it is stopped.
2) Sound Sphere Reduction
Sound sphere radius reduction should be simple given individual control over 3D sound volumes. The composer should
be able to reduce various groups and individual 3D sound sources in the world building tool.

43. Coding Sound
3) Voice Stealing
Voice stealing by priority requires a driver which supports this functionality and some pre-planning on the side of the
composer. This works by defining good priority values for each sample and allowing the sound driver to decide how to
steal a voice if none are available to play a new voice.
4) Instance Capping
Instance capping causes the sound driver to steal the voice of the oldest instance of a sample group when the maximum
number of instances is reached. An example is in button sounds, where the number of instances is set such that it
doesn’t sound like menu sounds are being cut off as well as not allowing the user to trigger enough voices to distort
the game platform’s audio output.
5) Sub-Mixing
Sub-mixing is likely the easiest. If two samples are commonly used together and rarely separately then the composer can
mix the two sounds together, save on memory as well as reduce the number of voices used.
6) “Bank-for-the-Buck”
Obviously, common sense must also be used when acting upon the results of the table, since a large, rarely used sample
doesn’t automatically mean it is unimportant and can be thrown away! However, all samples and their associated
memory sizes should be periodically re-evaluated to justify their weighting. An additional offline tool might allow
tweaking memory use parameters in real-time. This way, the composer can interactively change the sampling rate,
sample length and other parameters to see how optimizing would affect the resulting memory map and check the mix
with the results.

44. Game Networking

Game Networking exists where multiple people can play the same game and interact with each other on their own system.

Client/server is where effectively one machine is running the game, and everyone else is just a terminal that accepts input from
the player, and renders whatever the server tells it to render.

The advantage of client/server is that every machine will be showing the same game, since all processing is done in one place, not
across multiple machines where you can get out of sync with each other. The drawback is that the server itself needs to have some
serious CPU time available for the processing of each of the connected clients, as well as a decent network connection to ensure
each client receives its updates in a timely fashion.
What are TCP/IP, UDP/IP?

TCP/IP and UDP/IP are two levels of communication protocol systems.
The IP figures out the transmission of packets of data to and from the Internet.
UDP or TCP hands it a big fat packet of data, and IP splits it up into sub packets,
puts an envelope around each packet, and figures out the IP address of its
destination, and how it should get there, and then sends the packet out to your ISP
(Internet Service provider like BSNL), or however you are connected to the Net.

It's effectively like writing down what you want to send on a postcard, stamping
it, addressing it, and stuffing it in a mailbox, and off it goes.

UDP and TCP are higher layers that accept the packet of data from you the coder,
or the game, and decides what to do with it.

The difference between UDP and TCP is that TCP guarantees delivery of the packets, in order, and UDP doesn't.

45. Game Networking
Problem with TCP/IP

In order to be sure that packets that are sent via the Internet get there intact, TCP expects an Acknowledgment to
be sent back from the destination for every packet it sends. If it doesn't get an ACK within a certain time, then it
holds up sending any new packets, resends the one that was lost, and will continue to do so until the destination
responds.

This is actually such a problem that almost no games use TCP as their main Internet protocol of choice, unless
it's not a real-time action game. Most games use UDP--they can't guarantee order or delivery, but it sure is fast -
or at least faster than TCP/IP usually ends up.
Point to Remember: Network programing

Use of Protocol- TCP/IP is a strict no-no because of the obvious issues discussed above.

Packet Bloating- Careful only to transmit that data that is required. The larger the packet you give to the UDP
system, the more you are asking the network to handle.

Packet Frequency- Are you expecting packets to be sent faster than the communications infrastructure can
really handle?

Handling Packets- If you don't handle it right, you end up with missing events, missing entities, missing
effects, and sometimes, complete game.

46. Scripting System
Scripting

Allows game objects to execute code that is not compiled as part of the object.

Gives objects the ability to react to the world around them.

Scripting is where you take complete control over a given scene, setting up events that the player almost always
has no control over, where the gamer is "on a rail" in order to move though to a given plot point, or set up a
situation the player needs to resolve.

There are a variety of scripting languages currently being implement in games such as Lua and Python.
Type of scripting system

The first is the simple text-based, single-threaded style, just like we programmers are used to coding.

Then there's the complicated stuff--allowing multiple threads, and actually allowing variable situations. Variable
situations are those where you don't actually know for sure who's around when the script starts, but you have to
write the script in such a way that it will work with whoever is around.

47. Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence
Game artificial intelligence refers to techniques used in computer and video games to produce the illusion
of intelligence in the behaviour of non-player characters (NPCs).
Use of A.I.
 . Control of any NPCs in the game. A.I. can induce the functionality in opponents/NPC's like:
 Predicting Player Behavior
 Reaction based on Players action
 Taking logical decision on their own
 Reinforce learning through Knowledge Base
 Pathfinding is another common use for AI, widely seen in real-time strategy games.
[Pathfinding is the method for determining how to get an NPC from one point on a map to another,
taking into consideration the terrain, obstacles and possibly "fog of war". ]
 Game AI is also involved with dynamic game balancing.
Emergent A.I.
 The AI method where the opponents are able to "learn" from actions taken by the player and their
behavior is modified accordingly.
 While these choices are taken from a limited pool, it does often give the desired illusion of an
intelligence on the other side of the screen.

48. User Interface
User Interface (U.I.)
In general it is the means by which the users (gamers) interact with the system - a particular machine,
device, computer program or other complex tools. The user interface provides means
of:
* Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system
* Output, allowing the system to produce the effects of the users' manipulation.
 The UI is a medium between the Core Game Mechanics and the gamers
User Interface Defines Game Play
Game play is a vague concept and hard to describe. One possible way is to define it is by the way gamers interact
with games; that is, through the UI and the interactions associated with it.
By doing that, we will able to analyze game play, not as an abstract concept, but something concrete that can be
described, measured, and studied.
 UI doesn’t only help gamers to play games successfully, but also controls the pace at which the internal
mechanisms will be revealed to gamers.

49. User Interface
The form factors of the hardware, especially the I/O devices, greatly affect the design of UI.
User Interfaces of PC and Console Games
 PC games heavily rely on the combination of keyboard and mouse. Whereas console games have
controllers, which are more refined, although limited, input devices.
 Most gamers realize that they are interacting with some kinds of user interfaces when they are playing
PC games. But gamers playing console games sometimes don’t realize that they are interacting with
the UIs. UIs of console games are hidden deeply in the careful calculation of the usage of controllers,
which is not obvious from the screen.
 We can call the UIs of PC games software-oriented interfaces, which means they utilize lots of
conventional GUI elements to represent actions. The UIs of console games, on the other hand, are
hardware-oriented interfaces, which means they are designed around the form factors of controllers
and use relatively fewer GUI elements.

50. User Interface
Desirable Properties of User Interfaces for Games
Attractiveness, enjoyability.
E.g. quality of graphics, sound, animation, etc.
Strong influence on marketability.
Usability
How easy is it learn?
 Can be learned quickly and easily, either for the long term , or for immediate, "walk up and
use" purposes
How easy is it to use?
 Can be used to accomplish work rapidly, accurately, and without undue effort
 If a system is difficult to learn or to use, customers are likely to be dissatisfied eventually,
even if it is a market success at first.

51. UI Design Guidelines
 User Interface Shouldn’t Be Distracting
UI should have aesthetic taste, but more importantly, it should be simple,
efficient, easy to use, and consistent with the whole game environment.
 User Interface Should Provide Enough Visual Affordance
A good UI should use its visual appearance to suggest its functions. Gamers
should be able to understand and act easily by just looking at the UI.
 User Interface Should Be Balanced
The visual elements (buttons, labels) in a UI should be properly arranged,
sized, and aligned to reinforce logical relationships among them and ensure
the UI is stable on the screen.
 User Interface Should Be Transparent
A good UI should be transparent. Gamers should be able to forget about the
menus, buttons, icons, and windows and immerse into the virtual world that the
game creates. In that sense, UI designers’ job is to design UIs that are transparent
– UIs that can be used so naturally by the gamers so that nobody would even
notice its existence.

52. End Of Presentation
SHARAD MITRA
Sr. Technical Artist
Exigent Studios