1. Experience & Information Literacy:
Primary-­Text Focused Curriculum as a Filter for Library
Resources & Skills
Sara Grozanick & Julie Seigel
LIS 673 Library Use & Instruction
Filter Design Project: Final Document
16 December 2009

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GOALS & OBJECTIVES
The purpose of “Experience & Information Literacy: Primary-­Text Focused Curriculum as
a Filter for Information Literacy” is to create a situated context for building information literacy
skills. Through tying the research process to the examination of a text (in this case, William
Blake’s Songs of Experience) and atelier methods of production, our program instills: analytical
thinking, a deeper appreciation of reading and discussion, a comprehension of library resources
and skills, and a positive view of the library as a social and communal space.
During the course of 10 weeks (or 10 sessions), participants in the program will: identify
and navigate multiple material types and formats, create a community of shared inquiry and
democratic discussion, integrate information literacy skills into creative production, facilitate
peer mentorship through collaborative projects, become library advocates, and engage in
collection development through the creation of a collaborative zine that will be incorporated into
the library’s collection.
Each meeting will be composed of two hour-­long intervals, a half-­hour snack break, and a
half-­hour optional work period (where participants may explore the library, socialize, or work on
individual and group projects). Meetings will begin with an aloud reading of the selected poem(s)
from the group;; multiple reading of the same poem encourages participants to slow down their
natural reading tendencies and focus closely on language and meaning. Through close reading,
participants will explore meaning as it is constructed through choices of diction, sonic
components (e.g., rhyme and metre), phrasing, etc. Although group members will be motivated to
actively build meaning through context and discussion, rather than consult “authorized sources,”
resources (dictionaries, thesauri, etc.) will be on hand to be used as needed. This kind of activity
is meant to engage participants in higher-­order thinking, as described by Newmann and
Wehlage (1993):
Higher-­order thinking requires students to manipulate information and ideas in
ways that transform their meaning and implications, such as when students
combine facts and ideas in order to synthesize, generalize, explain, hypothesize, or
arrive at some conclusion or interpretation. Manipulating information and ideas
through these processes allows students to solve problems and discover new (for
them) meanings and understandings. (p.9)
In addition, close reading will be tied to reader response, emphasized by the usage of
journaling, and democratic discussion. Participants will document their textual, visual, and/or
auditory response(s) to the primary text via weekly journal prompts. Through these weekly
assignments, participants will deepen their relationship to the primary text, digest and
synthesize information, utilize multiple intelligences, and understand production preferences
and the iterative and creative aspects of the research process. Moreover, the utilization of journal
prompts inspires a seamless transition between ingestion and production, and communicates the
importance of agency and accountability regarding information consumption;; participants are

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not passive receivers of information, but as the aforementioned passage from Newmann &
Wehlage suggests, they are content producers.
Journal entries will be occasionally posted to a bulletin board;; the reserved space for the
program will feature a large bulletin board in which participants may attach items they believe
to be relevant to the project (e.g., snippets of articles, drawings, upcoming events, etc.). Usage of
the bulletin board simultaneously engages participants in a dialogue, honors multiple
intelligences, and unveils the research strategies of participants allowing for assessment and
modification of instruction if needed.
The existence of democratic discussion underlines close reading skills, whilst creating an
environment of shared inquiry, activity, and receptivity. Brookfield & Preskill (2005)
characterize this environment as a place where participants “[…] have the right to express
themselves as well as the responsibility to create spaces that encourage even the most reluctant
speaker to participate” (p. 3). The authors (Brookfield & Preskill, 2005) also note that discussion
is critical to information literacy because it’s viewed as an enjoyable form of engagement
amongst participants. To this end, we see generating discussion vital to forging social ties
between participants and members of the library staff.
There are undeniable challenges when working with teenagers regarding socialization and
participation, such as the formation of cliques, conflicting personalities, etc. The curriculum
however seeks to meet these challenges by advocating inclusivity through group, small
group/partnership, and individual projects. From the first meeting, participants will be
instructed to work in teams as part of an information literacy activity and then share their
findings with the group. Other types of collaborative activities will be scattered throughout the
course of the program (see timeline).Furthermore, the librarian(s) should take an active role in
grouping participants in ways that facilitate mutual growth. Our objective is to foster a safe
space of inquiry and peer-­mentorship where participants can exchange ideas, resources, and
collaborate on projects.
SURVEY OF LANDSCAPE: BACKGROUND & NEED
“The capacity to participate in verbally complex texts is not widely fostered in our
educational system, and desirable habits of reflection, interpretation, and evaluation are not
widespread,” writes Louise Rosenblatt in her 1994 The Reader, The Text, The Poem:
Transactional Theory of the Literary Work (p. 143). While these “habits,” or skills, are often
applied specifically to the understanding and appreciation of literary works, they are also
fundamental to the practice of information literacy. There is an exigency for information literacy,
as made evident by the 2009 Horizon Report citing “a growing need for […] information literacy”
(Johnson, Levine & Smith). Similarly, in a 2006 Teacher Librarian article, Caroline Geck
asserts that today’s teenagers, whom she refers to as members of Generation Z (beginning with

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individuals born after 1990), “have never engaged in formal exercises comparing advantages,
disadvantages, strengths, and weaknesses of the Web with other informational tools such as
books and print journals” (p. 20).
The ability to compare and evaluate resources is critical to developing information literacy
skills. However, these competencies are unlikely to become internalized behaviors if they are
taught in a vacuum. A theory of legitimate peripheral participation developed by Lave & Wegner
(1991) states “even so-­called general knowledge only has power in specific circumstances” (p. 33).
Moreover, more than one case study has found library and information literacy instruction to be
most effective when situated within a specific context where users draw a connection between
successfully completing an assignment or task and acquiring information literacy skills (Klopfer,
Olwell & Hudock, 2004;; Meulemans & Brown, 2001).
USE OF FILTER
By facilitating engagement with library materials and critical thinking skills, the
curriculum will help participants develop such skills as: identifying the information needed and
how to locate and retrieve it (recognizing types and formats), employing various search
strategies, etc., and meditating on the application of their newly acquired information.

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The curriculum is made up of five components: the close reading of a primary text,
democratic discussion, journaling and construction of a zine, a subsequent exhibition,and usage
of library resources and services as they relate to the aforementioned activities.
Integral to these components is the process of journaling and use of journal prompts.
Journal prompts are constructed in order to directly link the text and the processes and skills of
library research not only with each other, but to the participants’ own experiences and creative
processes. The role of journal prompts is not only to help participants see “the literary work […]
as part of the fabric of individual lives” (Rosenblatt, 1994, p.143), but to do the same for the
library—to create an individual experience for the participant that is directly related to utilizing
information literacy skills. For examples of journal prompts and a more detailed description of
the curriculum, see timeline.
COMMUNITY & OUTREACH
At its heart, the program seeks to create community within the library through shared
experience and mutual inquiry. To this end, it is important that as a “leader” of the group, the
librarian(s) bring the same exploratory spirit that will be hopefully matched by participants.
That is, rather than appear as the archetypal gatekeeper of knowledge, the librarian(s) should
demonstrate inquisitiveness and an awareness of themselves as co-­learners, i.e., admit when an
answer is not known and model the steps to gaining understanding. Accordingly, the librarian(s)
should be encouraging participants to describe their own methods of meaning construction and
synthesis. As Paulo Friere puts it: “Through dialogue, the teacher-­of-­the-­students and the
students-­of-­the-­teacher cease to exist and a new term emerges: teacher-­student with student-­
teacher” (as cited in Jacobs, 2008, p. 261). It is our hope that throughout the duration of the
program, participants will cease to view themselves as “students” or “librarians,” but as peers
who are interested in the reciprocal exchange of viewpoints, experiences, and ways of seeing.
We envision working with a group of 10-­15 teenagers, between the ages of 13-­18 (a
significant portion of which are enrolled in local public schools), in a public library setting. The
project was originally conceived as being a North American summer program;; however, we
believe the curriculum could be successfully adapted in any geographic location or time of year.
Possible incarnations of the program include: a public school project orchestrated by a librarian
and/or English teacher, library school or secondary education students serving as facilitators, or
a library partnering with a cultural or academic institution (e.g., a museum or local university).
The idea of a primary “text” is not limited to poetry, but extends to works of fiction and
non-­fiction;; a primary text could be a work of visual art, a play, or a film. The concepts
introduced through “close reading" would be altered with each of these adaptations, as would the
nature of the journal prompts.

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In an effort to reinforce the alliance between the library and the community, and to
promote the program, librarians will: communicate with school faculty, advertise in communal
spaces (e.g., community, cultural, and religious centers and afterschool programs), and within
the library (through interactions with library patrons, posting on the library website and e-­mail
lists, etc.). The librarian(s) organizing the program will strive to generate awareness and
institutional support in order to secure funding and library space, as well as recommendations
for participants and guest speakers.
Another form of community outreach will be the inclusion of the participants’ zine into the
library’s permanent collection and the subsequent exhibition;; by incorporating the zine into the
library’s collection it not only underscores the program’s mission to contemporize canonical
works, but participants become more personally invested in the library as contributors to the
collection. The two-­month exhibition simultaneously celebrates the work of participants, invites
members of the community into the space, and serves as a point of reference for future
incarnations of the program. Participants’ family members, friends, and peers, as well as
members of the community will be invited to the unveiling of the exhibition (complete with music
and refreshments).
INITATIVES & REQUIRED RESOURCES
One to two librarians can successfully implement the program. Depending on the librarian’s or
librarians’ work responsibilities and available resources, planning and execution should take at
least six months. The duties of the librarian(s) are as follows: composing and administering the
curriculum, writing grants and working with potential funders (e.g., local bookstores and art
supplies stores that may be willing to donate materials), liaising with high school and middle
school teachers and community groups regarding enrollment and guest speakers, being
accessible to participants, and assessing and modifying the program based on evaluative
feedback.
In addition, the program requires the following resources:
10-­15 copies of Songs of Experience*
Library and its resources (e.g., databases, OPAC, reference collection, media, picture files,
etc.)*
Reserved meeting space*
Computers (with Internet access and Microsoft Office Suite)*
Graphic design software (i.e., Adobe Photoshop)
Printer*
Scanners
Journals*
Projector
Audio/recording equipment (CD/MP3 player, speakers, and microphones)

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Bulletin board or industrial-­sized Post-­Its (for journaling or brainstorming)*
Art supplies (e.g., colored pencils, paper, binding materials, scissors, etc.)*
Snacks*
Photocopier*
Blank CDs
Note: This is an ideal list;; asterisked items are those deemed essential to the program’s
implementation.
ASSESSMENT & EVALUATION
The objectives of assessment and evaluation are to identify the strengths and deficiencies
of the program, for participants to reflect and articulate their experience, and to modify the
program based on the input of participants, instructors, library administrators, and members of
the community. Facilitators will devise ongoing forms of qualitative and quantitative assessment
via the distribution of surveys and questionnaires, informal interviews, the observed level of
discussion, research, and production, and the examination of enrollment, circulation, and
transaction statistics.
The concept of triangulation, as referenced by Grassian and Kaplowitz (2001), suggests
the value in employing qualitative and quantitative methods of assessment in an effort to
acquire descriptive and numerical data;; the availability of said data (desired by instructors and
library administrators), is needed to secure funding, justify expenditures, and stimulate
institutional support. However, the selection of qualitative modes of assessment is perhaps more
befitting to the holistic and ethnographic curriculum of the curriculum. As the authors (Grassian
&Kaplowitz, 2001) observe, “Qualitative methods seem particularly suited to assessment of
cognitive/humanist approaches to teaching and learning […] they acknowledge diversity of
styles, backgrounds, and behavior in the classroom” (p. 278). Qualitative assessment permits a
flexibility of response, and most importantly, conceals the intentions of instructors (in
comparison to controlled testing).
Facilitators will utilize the following as vehicles for assessment:
Surveys & questionnaires-­ pre-­ and post-­testing will be conducted in order to assess
participants’ areas of interest, their level of familiarity with library resources, newly
developed search strategies, etc. Surveys will feature a combination of open-­ended and
rating questions to test cognition and to reduce the level of intimidation regarding the
evaluative process.
Journaling-­ two or more journal prompts will be devoted to the subject of evaluation (one
of which will be posted to the bulletin board), to seamlessly integrate examination and
revision into the research habits of participants.

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Informal interviews-­ instructors will weekly (sometimes daily) converse with participants
about their experience of the program. Depending on availability and the level of
expressed interest, participants will potentially have the opportunity to serve in an
advisory capacity with respect to future programming.
CAT techniques and exhibition material-­ facilitators will rely on performance assessment
techniques (i.e., the observation of verbal and non-­verbal behaviors) to provide immediate
feedback so that they can tailor instruction accordingly. Moreover, zine contributions and
exhibition material will serve as a form of product assessment revealing participants’
learning attitudes, preference for material types and formats, etc.
Enrollment, circulation, and transaction statistics-­ instructors will scrutinize the number
of enrolled participants (versus future cycles) and usage statistics regarding introduced
library resources (in both print and electronic formats) and visits to the program’s
webpage.
Note: Data will be made available to library staff, administrators, and members of the community.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
APPENDIX: TIMELINE & SAMPLE LESSON PLANS

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1. Songs of Experience: What is
Experience?
Journal Prompt: Utilize the form of your choice-­-­prose, poetry
drawing, painting, music, a hybrid, or something else-­-­to create an
autobiographical "text" that focuses on an experience (or experiences) Information Literacy: Researching the life and work of William Blake
that have shaped you. An experience could be: a relationship with using biographical databases & dictionaries.
another person (family member, friend, stranger), an event in your
life, something you love to do (ride horses, skateboard, play violin).
How was this experience significant? Does it affect the way you think
about yourself?
2. "Introduction" & "Earth's Answer":
Lyricism & Reading Aloud
Journal Prompt: Select and check out an audiorecoding from the
library catalog. When you listen to it, think about the following: How
is listening to a poem or reading it aloud different from reading it
silently? How is it different from reading prose or having a Information Literacy: Conducting a catalog search by format type
conversation? Pay attention to tone, pace, etc. Challenge yourself to and retrieving content through the identification of call numbers.
write an “answer” poem responding to the plea of “O Earth O Earth
return! [...]” (from Blake’s “Introduction”) in the language of today.
What would “Earth’s Answer” be today? Be prepared to read your
response to the group.
3. "The Clod & Pebble":
Juxtaposition/Contradiction & Imagery
Journal Prompt: Browse image databases and picture files for a Information Literacy: Using image databases & repositories, picture
source of inspiration. Create a short "text" (poem, drawing, etc.) that files.
features contradictory imagery linked by a common idea or theme.

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4. “The Chimney Sweeper” & “Nurses
Song”: Voice & Point-­of-­View
Journal Prompt: Based on your reading of primary sources Information Literacy: Identifying and locating primary documents
(newspapers, periodicals, court transcripts, etc.), create a text from (newspapers, periodicals, court transcripts, etc.).
the viewpoint of someone living during Blake's period of production
on Songs of Experience (1789-­1803).
5. “The Sick Rose” & “The Fly”:
Metaphor
Journal prompt: Create a visualization (metaphor) for the research Information literacy: Self-­reporting and evaluating resources,
process and/or your experience in the program thus far. Possible credibility in the research process, democratic discussion.
topics include: your initial point of interest, resources used,
challengeds encountered along the way, items that contributed to a
newfound direction, and/or how you'd like to move forward.
6. “The Tyger”: Rhyme & Metre
Journal Prompt: We've seen how others have been inspired by the Information Literacy: Bibliographical research finding artists/works
works of Blake. Challenge yourself to either: 1) write a poem using influenced by Blake;; bibliographic creation.
the same rhyme and metre as one of Blake's poems 2) appropriate an
image (visual or literary) from one of Blake's poems we haven't read
as a group and create your own text.

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7. “London”: Diction & History
Journal prompt: We've looked at how the historical environment of Information literacy: Intellectual property & appropriation, citation
London has manifested itself in Blake's work. Exploring your own manuals.
immediate environment, appropriate a "text" from the bulletin board
and rework it to say something about the time period today. Make
sure to credit your peers!
8. “The Human Abstract”:
Intertextuality & Creative Process
Journal Prompt: Blake's "The Human Abstract" as a companion Information Literacy: Distribution of information (Blake's era vs.
poem to "The Divine Image" has shown us how the creative process today, issues of accessibility, credibility and control) and collection
can lead to intertextuality. Today's guest speaker has also talked development (contemplation of the zine's inclusion into the library's
about process and revision. Choose a piece from your journal and collection).
revise it. How do you see your work differently?
9. “A Poison Tree”: Peer-­revision &
Self-­curation
Journal Prompt: As the program draws to a close reflect on your
experience-­ what have you enjoyed about the program? What did you
find challenging? Write in your journal and/or fill out the evaluation
handout. Possible journaling topics include: your contribution(s) to Information Literacy: Self-­evalaution and assessment of program,
the zine, how/if your research process has changed over the past ten continued use of resources relevant to the creation of participants'
weeks, introduced topics and/or resources, the level of group zine contributions.
discussion and communication, or what changes you'd like to see in
next year's program. Be prepared to discuss your responses next
week.

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10. “The Voice of the Ancient Bard”:
Reflection & Presentations
Shared reflections: Each participant will comment on their process
from conception to production (what interested them about their Information Literacy: Evaluation of program and instruction,
choosen topic, what resources they used, etc.) and their experience of reflection of learning behaviors and search strategies.
the program (sparked by the evaluation prompt from the previous
week).
Preperation for the exhibition: collect submissions and address any
remaining questions and/or concerns about the exhibition.
ZINE EXHIBITION &
CELEBRATION
The two-­month exhibition will feature the zine, photographed
contributions (with captions from participants regarding their
research process, topic, and/or resources used), titles used, and
screenshots of electronic resources, thus encapsulating the research
process and allowing for product assessment.

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MEETING 1 | (Songs of) Experience & (Auto)biography
Essential Questions
What does “experience” mean to you?
Who was William Blake?
Why should we—and should we—care about his writing?
How do different formats and types of media change what we consider to be a(n)
(auto)biography?
Key Concepts
Differentiating shapes of information: dictionaries, biographies, autobiographies,
facsimiles
Relating personal life experience to abstract idea of experience
Sharing and reading in a group environment
Information Literacy Skills Orientation
Ability to recognize and use a dictionary
Ability to recognize and know when to use biographical dictionaries
Ability to access and search electronic biographical dictionaries & encyclopedia databases
Ability to notice and articulate the types of information found in these reference sources
Ability to notice and articulate the differences in depth, coverage, and focus of the
resources used
Materials Used in the Lesson
Biographical dictionaries, print. Some examples are:
Magnusson, M., & Goring, R. (1990). Cambridge biographicaldictionary. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Nicholls, C. S. (1997). Encyclopedia of biography. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Parry, M. (1997). Chambers biographical dictionary. Edinburgh: Chambers.
Biographical dictionaries in the form of online electronic databases:
Literature Resource Center
Columbia Granger’s World of Poetry
Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia
Twayne’s Authors Series
Additional Reference Materials
The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and JosephViscomi:
http://www.blakearchive.org/.

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Unfolding of the Lesson
1. Introductions
Group Introductions
o Name?
o Age?
o What is an activity that you like to do?
o Why did you sign up for this program?
o Have you read poetry before;; if, so, what is a poem or a poet that you have enjoyed?
Description of the program. What are we going to do during the course of 10 weeks? Focus
on reading a single text, William Blake’s Songs of Experience;; develop our own
writing/production and critical/creative thinking through discussion, keeping a journal,
and collaborative experimentation. We will explore expression through different media.
[Open it up for questions and comments.]
2. Read Around: All members of the group (beginning with the “leader”/librarian) will read one of
the poems. Introduce the idea of reading poetry aloud. Suggest that group participants relax,
slow down their normal rate of speech. It’s okay to make mistakes.
Observe participants’ varying levels of ability, comfort with group participation, and familiarity with reading
poetry. Establish an atmosphere of sharing, inclusiveness, and mutual participation. Provide a survey and
introduction to the main text of the program.
3. Discussion: To begin thinking about the text, Songs of Experience, let us begin thinking about
the idea of experience. We often talk about experience to mean different things. What does
experience mean to you?
Unpacking the word “experience” (as an introductory exercise in close reading and reader response). At the
discretion of the group and the librarian outside sources, e.g., dictionaries, may also be consulted as a point
of comparison—think about problematizing the concept of a fixed definition. Encourage participants to
elaborate on their ideas, by citing examples of their own experiences.
4. Weekly journal prompt: Writing our autobiographies. Utilize the form of your choice—prose,
poetry, drawing, painting, music, a hybrid, or something else—to create an autobiographical
“text.” What experience or experiences in your life have helped shape you? An experience could
be: a relationship with another person (family member, friend, stranger), an event in your life,
something you love to do (ride horses, skateboard, play violin). What about this experience was
(or is) important to your life? Does it affect how you think about yourself? How?
Ask group to brainstorm ideas for a “text.” Encourage the use of media other than writing (along with
writing) to help group expand their notions of “text” and “autobiography” if it seems needed. Discuss the idea
of combining media.
Pass out prompt sheets along with journals. Mention that if individuals want, they are welcome
to bring in their own journals to use instead.

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MEETING 10 | Presentations & Evaluation
Essential Questions
What brought you to the program? What were your expectations?
What aspects of the program did you enjoy?
Think over the project(s) you have created-­ What did you find interesting about your
area(s) of concentration?
What aspects of the program did you find challenging? Why?
How did you feel about the level of discussion in the program?
What method(s) of instruction did you find the most valuable? What methods weren’t
helpful?
What has it been like to devote yourself to a single text for ten weeks?
Of the resources introduced, which were familiar? Unfamiliar? What resource(s) will you
continue to use, if any?
How do you feel about working in the library, versus when you first entered the program?
How would you improve the program? What changes would you like to see?
Would you recommend this program? Why or why not?
Key Concepts
Self-­reflection and evaluation of program
Self-­curation
Sharing and reading in a group environment
Information Literacy Skills Orientation
Ability to reflect on processes (reading, discussion, research, and production)
Ability to recognize learning attitudes/behaviors and research strategies
Ability to identify and evaluate instructional delivery methods and library resources
Materials Used in the Lesson
Journal prompts
Questionnaires
Unfolding of the Lesson
1. State overview of meeting (review, presentations, break, and evaluation)
2. Review
o Address any remaining questions/concerns (material from last week, upcoming
exhibition, etc.)
o Make sure participants have submitted their work for the exhibition (images,
captions, research guides, bibliographies, etc.). Inform participants they have until
the end of the day to turn in their work.

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3. Presentations
o 10-­15 minutes of individual/group work to prepare for presentations
o Each participant will comment on their process, from conception to production,
accompanied by an informal Q&A session (possible topics include: what they found
interesting about their topic, resources they used, challenges they encountered
along the way, items that contributed to a newfound direction in their research,
etc.).
4. Snack break
o Serve refreshments
5. Evaluation
o Ask participants to read/share their reactions to last week’s prompt and
questionnaire
o Shared discussion-­ Each participant (instructors included) will reflect on his or her
experience of the program (possible topics include: established learning behaviors,
preferred methods of instruction, previous discussions, newly formed attitudes
towards Blake and the library, etc.).
o Inform participants of the possibility of serving as advisors regarding future cycles
of the program
o Collect questionnaires
6. Closing
o Remind participants of meeting time and date of exhibition
o State availability (if any other questions/concerns should arise)
o Thank participants once again for a wonderful ten weeks!

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References
Blake, W. (1984). Songs of experience: Facsimile reproduction with 26 plates in full color. New
York: Dover.
Brookfield, S. D. & Preskill, S. (2005). Discussion in a Democratic Society. In Discussion as a
Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. New York: Josey
Bass.
Farmer, L., & Shontz, M. (2009). "School Library Journal's" Spending Survey. School Library
Journal, 55(4), 38-­44. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from Library Lit &Info Full Text
database.
Geck, C. (2006). The Generation Z Connection: Teaching InformationLiteracy to the Newest Net
Generation. Teacher Librarian, 33(3), 19-­23. Retrieved December 12, 2009, from
Education Full Text database.
Grassian, E. S. & Kaplowitz, J.R. (2001). Information literacy instruction: Theory and practice.
New York: Neal-­Schuman, 265-­288.
Jacobs, H. L. M. (2008). Information Literacy and Reflective Pedagogical Praxis. Journal of
Academic Librarianship, 34(3).
Johnson, L., Levine, A., & Smith, R. (2009). The 2009 Horizon Report. Austin, Texas: The New
Media Consortium.
Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Legitimate Peripheral Participation. In Situated Learning:
Legitimate Peripheral Participation. New York: Cambridge UP.
Newmann, F. M. & Wehlage, G. G. (1993). Five standards of authentic instruction. Educational
Leadership, 50(7), 8-­12.
Rosenblatt, L. M. (1994). The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary
work. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.