This document summarizes common health problems affecting sheep and goats. It discusses the most prevalent parasitic, respiratory, hoof, reproductive, and metabolic diseases. For parasites, it describes the life cycles and symptoms of internal nematodes (roundworms), cestodes (tapeworms), trematodes (flukes), and protozoa. It provides treatment and prevention recommendations for each. For other diseases like pneumonia, footrot, abortion, mastitis, and pregnancy toxemia/milk fever, it discusses causes, clinical signs, and management strategies. The document is an extensive overview of the major health challenges sheep and goat producers may face.

1. 2014 WINTER WEBINAR SERIES
SHEEP & GOAT HEALTH
PART IV:
COMMON HEALTH PROBLEMS
SUSAN SCHOENIAN & JEFF SEMLER – UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND EXTENSION

2. MOST COMMON DISEASES
AFFECTING SHEEP AND GOATS
• Parasitic
• Respiratory
• Hoof
• Reproductive
• Metabolic
• Other diseases

3. PARASITIC DISEASES
Sheep and goats can be affected by many different internal and external parasites.
INTERNAL (ENDO)
EXTERNAL (ECTO)
1. Helminths (multi-cellular)
1.
Ticks
2.
Keds
3.
Biting lice
4.
Sucking lice
5.
Mites
6.
Nasal bots (bot flies)
a) Nematodes
(roundworms)
b) Cestodes
(tapeworms)
c) Trematodes
(flukes)
2. Protozoa (single-cell)

4. INTERNAL PARASITES
NEMATODES - ROUNDWORMS
Strongyle-type worms
Blood-feeding worms
• Haemonchus contortus (barber pole worm) *
• Bunostomum (hookworm)
“Scour” worms
• Cooperia (small intestinal worm)
• Nematodirus (threadworm)
• Oesophagostomum (nodule form)
• Teladorsagia (brown stomach worm)*
• Trichostrongylus (hair worm)*
• Trichuris ovis (whipworm)
•
•
Lungworms
Meningeal worm
Bottle jaw - barber pole worm infection

5. STRONGYLE-TYPE WORMS OF IMPORTANCE
HAEMONCHUS CONTORTUS #1
Barber pole worm
• Blood-feeding parasite that causes
blood and protein loss (anemia) and
bottle jaw and sudden death.
TRICHOSTRONGYLUS SPP. and
TELADOSAGIA (OSTERTAGIA)
• Cause gastritis and enteritis in host:
weight loss, diarrhea, production loss.
• Usually of secondary importance to
Haemonchus in mixed parasitic
infections.
• Short, simple life cycles: no intermediate host
• Able to go into hypobiotic (arrested) state (in
animal) to survive unfavorable environmental
conditions (e.g. winter).
• Control with management: pasture rest/rotation,
clean pastures, annual pastures, mixed species
grazing, tanniferous forages, browsing, minimum
grazing heights, zero grazing, genetic selection, etc.
• Control with targeted, selective treatment(s) with
effective anthelmintic(s); test for anthelmintic
resistance every 2-3 years.

6. OTHER ROUNDWORMS
LUNGWORMS
MUELLERIUS CAPILLARIES,
DICTOCAULUS FILARIAL
• Prefer cool conditions. Muellerious requires an
intermediate host.
• Diagnosis is based on clinical signs, finding larvae
in feces (Baermann technique), and post-mortem
exam.
• Symptoms
Usually no signs of infection
In severe cases, coughing, rapid breathing, nasal
discharge, loss of appetite, and ill thrift.
• Most anthelmintics are effective against
lungworms.
• Generally not very pathogenic; more
problematic in goats , especially kids (?)
MENINGEAL WORM
PARALAPHOSTRONGYLUS TENIUS
• Parasite of white tail deer
• Sheep, goats, and camelids are unnatural,
dead end hosts (no eggs in feces) for parasite.
• Require intermediate host: terrestrial snail or slug
• Digestive tract  central nervous system.
Cause neurological symptoms , paralysis, death.
• Treat with fenbendazole, ivermectin, and antiinflammatory drugs (Rx).
• Prevention (?)
Monthly treatments with ivermectin.
Control of snail, slug population
• Can be a significant problem on some farms.

7. OTHER HELMINTH PARASITES
CESTODES - TAPEWORMS
MONIEZIA SPP.
TREMATODES - FLUKES
FASCIOLA HEPATICA
• Only parasite that is visible in feces
(tapeworm segments).
• Oval-shape, leaf-like
• Require intermediate host (pasture
mites) to complete life cycle (6 weeks).
• Tend to be non-pathogenic;
usually no benefit to treatment.
• Can treat with albendazole,
fenbendazole (Rx), or praziquantel
(Quest® Plus Gel, Rx).
• Require intermediate host (snail, slug) to complete
life cycle (2-3 months).
• Diagnose by finding eggs in feces and post-mortem
exam (liver damage, flukes in bile ducts).
• Cause liver damage and hemorrhage.
Similar symptoms as barber pole worm: anemia,
submandibular edema (bottle jaw), sudden death.
• Treat with albendazole, closantel (Rx), and Ivomec®
Plus (Rx).
• Geographic distribution: Gulf Coast States,
especially Florida, and Pacific Northwest.

8. PROTOZOA: COCCIDIA (EIMERIA SPP.)
• Single-cell protozoa
• Species specific
• Not all strains are pathogenic
• More complicated life cycle than worms,
e.g. spores and asexual reproduction.
• Affects mostly young animals, 1-6
months of age, especially weanlings.
• Adults are largely immune, but serve as
reservoirs of infection.

9. COCCIDIOSIS (EIMERIA SPP.)
• Symptoms
Clinical (5%) vs. sub-clinical (95%)
Scours (diarrhea): none to mild to severe
Ill-thrift, anorexia, lethargy, dehydration
Dirty hocks, rough coat, open fleece
• Treatment
Drench with amprolium (Corid) or sulfa
antibiotic* for 5 days (Rx).
Supportive therapy as needed.
• Prevention
Good management, sanitation, and nutrition.
Coccidiostats in feed, water, or mineral:
Corid (Rx), Bovatec®, Rumensin®, or Deccox®.

10. EXTERNAL PARASITES
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
• Ticks, mites, lice, keds
Excessive rubbing and scratching,
Irritation and itching
Biting at self
Loss of hair, wool
Raw areas
• Specific treatment recommendations
vary by pest.
• Nasal bots
Nasal discharge
Head shaking, teeth grinding
Snorting with head to ground
• Insecticides*
Mostly permethrin-based
Pour-ons*, sprays, dips, and aerosols
Some Rx
• Anthelmintics (Rx for goats)
Ivermectin* (drench)
Moxidectin (drench)
* recommended
Ivomec® is only labeled for the control of nasal bots in sheep. Cydectin® is not labeled for external parasite control.

11. RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN SHEEP AND GOATS
• Respiratory problems are common in sheep and goats;
they can have many causes, including bacteria, viruses,
tumors, parasites, and aspiration.
• Common bacterial causes of pneumonia in sheep/goats
include Pasteurella multocida, Mannheamia haemolytica,
mycoplasma
• Respiratory disease is characterized by fever (>104°F),
coughing, nasal discharge, difficulty breathing, weakness,
and death.
• Prevent with management, e.g. good nutrition, sanitation,
proper ventilation, and vaccination (pasteurella).
• Treat with antibiotics: penicillin, LA-200®, Nuflur®*,
Naxcel®, or Excenel® (Rx)* and anti-inflammatory
drugs (Rx)*.

12. THREE HOOF DISEASES THAT COMMONLY
INFECT SUSCEPTIBLE SHEEP AND GOATS.
FOOT SCALD
FOOTROT
FOOT ABSCESS
• An inflammation or
redness between toes
(claws) of hoof.
• Infection of hoof:
involves separation of
horny portions of hoof
from the underlying
sensitive areas.
• Bacterial infection of
damaged hoof tissue,
causing formation of
abscess inside.
• Characteristic foul odor.

13. FOOT SCALD
FOOTROT
FOOT ABSCESS
• Foot scald is caused by a
bacteria that is present on
all sheep and goat farms:
Fusobacterium
necrophorum.
• Foot rot requires the
interaction of two
anaerobic bacteria:
F. necrophorum +
Dichelobacter nodosus.
• Foot abscesses are
caused by bacteria that
are normally found on
farms, e.g. actinomyces
spp.
• It is not thought to be
contagious.
• Occurs during periods of
wet weather.
• D. nodosus does not infect
healthy hooves.
• D. nodosus is introduced
to a farm via infected hooves.
• D. nodosus can only survive
outside of hoof for 14 d.
• Usually an individual
animal problem;
mostly mature, heavy
animals.
• Treatment
Antibiotics
• Seems to be more of a
problem with goats than
sheep.
• Highly contagious.
• Treatment
Topical treatment or foot
soak with zinc sulfate
solution.
• Treatment and eradication
Hoof trimming + foot soaking + culling (+ antibiotics/UK)
• Hard to eradicate.
http://umaine.edu/sheep/files/2010/06/protocol-5-12.pdf

14. REPRODUCTIVE PROBLEMS
• Abortion
• Dystocia
• Ringwomb
• Prolapses
• Mastitis
• Pregnancy toxemia
• Milk fever

15. ABORTION
Termination of pregnancy, stillbirths, weak offspring, congenital abnormalities
1-5% loss is normal. Hard to know how many is normal in a small flock/herd.
• Infectious causes of abortion (zoonotic!)
Top three causes
Campylobacter (vibrio)
Chlamydia (enzootic, EAE)
Toxoplasmosis (coccidia of cat)
Less common causes
Border disease (related to BVD)
Brucellosis
Cache Valley Virus
Leptospirosis
Listeriosis
Salmonella
Q fever
Bluetongue (virus)
• Non-infectious causes of abortion
Nutrition, stress, diseases, near-term situations
• During an abortion storm
Wear gloves!
Isolate aborting ewes/does
Remove and destroy all bedding and aborted material
Thoroughly disinfect pens
Submit samples for necropsy (50% chance of diagnosis)
Feed antibiotics to remaining females (goats, Rx)
Antibiotic injections to remaining females (Rx)
• Prevention
Maintain a closed flock or herd
Vaccinate at-risk flocks/herds (vibrio, Chlamydia)
Vaccinate replacement females (vibrio, Chlamydia)
Purchase maiden ewes/does
Feed ionophore during late gestation (Rx).
Feed antibiotic during late gestation (goats, Rx)
Good sanitation
Keep cats from contaminating feed and bedding

16. DYSTOCIA (DIFFICULT BIRTHS)
• Disproportionate size
Large offspring
Small pelvic opening
• Malpresentation
Elbow lock
Leg(s) back
Head back
Breech (tail only)
Swollen head
Simultaneous births
Dead and deformed
Other
Backwards is also normal.
• Ringwomb
Failure of cervix to dilate
• Assisting with difficult births
• If no progress after 45-60 minutes of hard labor
(after water breaks), examine ewe/doe, identify
problem (if any), and correct (if necessary).
• Wear gloves or OB sleeves.
• Make liberal use of lubricant.
• Gentle, steady pressure and manipulation.
• After 30 minutes of trying and no progress, call
a veterinarian or experienced shepherd for help.
• Give antibiotic after assisted deliveries.
Special case: ringwomb
Do not attempt to pull lambs/kids
C-section

17. VAGINAL PROLAPSE
• Occurs during last month of pregnancy
• Contributing factors
Excessive body condition
Multiple births
High fiber diets
Limited exercise
Overcrowding at feeders
Previous vaginal prolapse
Genetic predisposition
• Treatment
Replace after cleaning
Use suture, bearing retainer, harness, or
truss to hold prolapse in until lambing.
• Prevention
Proper nutrition
Adequate feeder space
Cull affected ewes and don’t save their
offspring
UTERINE PROLAPSE
• Occurs immediately after or 12 to
48 hours after parturition.
• Can be life threatening
• Contributing factors
Excessive straining from
difficult birth
Uterine infection
Hypocalcemia
• Treatment
Wash and replace (administer
epidural, Rx)
Uterine relaxant (oxytocin, Rx)
Antibiotics
Okay to keep for another year

18. MASTITIS - INFLAMMATION OF UDDER
SUB-CLINICAL
CLINICAL
• Mostly costly form
• Symptoms
Limping
No (little) milk: starving lambs, kids
Lumps in udder
Swelling of udder, “hot” to touch
Depression, fever, poor appetite
Gangrene, death
• Symptoms
Nothing obvious, but adverse
effects on production.
Can detect with SCC and CMT.
• Treatment
Systemic antibiotics
Intramammary antibiotics (Rx)
• Cull chronically-infected ewes and does.

19. RISK FACTORS FOR MASTITIS
• Most infections are caused by bacteria:
Streptococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp.,
Pasteurella spp., and coliforms (e. coli).
Mastitis is also a common symptom of OPP and CAE.
Predisoposing factors
• Stressful conditions (e.g. weather)
• Poor sanitation, hygiene
• Teat and udder damage
• Poor udder conformation
• Heavy-milkers, age
• Sore mouth
• Genetic susceptibility

20. PREGNANCY TOXEMIA AND MILK FEVER
• Metabolic diseases that commonly affect
pregnant and lactating ewes and does.
Pregnancy toxemia
Late gestation
Milk fever
Late gestation (ewes)
Early lactation (does)
• Diseases present with similar symptoms
• Can be differentiated by response to treatment:
energy (glucose) vs. calcium.
• Early treatment can be successful.
• Is usually a flock or herd problem: primarily nutrition

21. PREGNANCY TOXEMIA (KETOSIS)
MILK FEVER (HYPOCALCEMIA)
• Cause
• Cause
Low blood calcium (Ca)
Inadequate energy (TDN) in late gestation diet
Low blood glucose
Elevated ketone levels in urine
Inadequate Ca in late gestation diet or failure to
mobilize Ca reserves (too much Ca in diet).
• Symptoms
Off feed, lethargy
Lack of coordination, recumbency
• Symptoms
Off feed, unsteady gait
Legs splayed out
• Treatment
Early: oral propylene glycol, IV glucose
Advanced: induce labor, c-section
• Treatment
Oral, Sub-Q, or IV calcium solution
• Prevention
Adequate energy in late gestation diet
• Prevention
Proper amount of Ca in late gestation diet
Usually necessary (advisable) to feed grain,
specially to high-producing ewes and does.
• Sheep: Ca requirements peak in late gestation
• Goats : Ca requirements similar throughout gestation.

22. COMMON DIGESTIVE/METABOLIC DISEASES
• Milk fever
• Pregnancy toxemia
• Acidosis
• Bloat
• Urinary calculi

23. ACIDOSIS
Grain poisoning, grain overload, engorgement
• Production of large quantities of lactic acid
which lowers rumen pH.
• Caused by rapid fermentation of
carbohydrates.
• Associated with feeding grains, pellets, and
by-product feeds. Can also occur on rapidly
growing pastures and when feeding high
quality silage.
• Clinical vs. sub-clinical
Acute clinical - life-threatening
Mild clinical - depression, diarrhea, bloat
Sub-clinical - reduced performance, laminitis
• Treatment
Remove grain from ration; feed hay
Sodium bicarbonate
Antacids
• Prevention
Gradual adaptation to high starch diets
Do not crack or grind grains
Feed additives: bentonite, sodium bicarb,
limestone, rumen modifiers (ionophores),
antibiotics, yeast.

24. BLOAT
• Caused by an accumulation of gas in the
rumen and reticulum; animal unable to
belch. There are two kinds of bloat:
• Frothy
Caused by diets that promote the
formation of froth (foam): legumous
forages, wet, grass pastures, cereal grain
pastures, garden greens, and grain.
• Free gas
Caused by diets that promote excessive
free gas production: high-grain diets .
• Abomasal bloat can occur in artificiallyreared lambs/kids. It is caused by
improper milk feeding.
• Symptoms
Severity varies, can be life-threatening
or self-curing.
Distended abdomen, swelling on left side
• Treatment
Varies by severity
Passage of stomach tube (free gas)
Drench with vegetable oil, mineral oil, antacid
• Prevention
Introduce to feed or pasture slowly
Feed dry stemmy hay before allowing access to
legume pastures
Commercial bloat preventatives, ionophores,
baking soda
Proper milk feeding.

25. URINARY CALCULI (“WATER BELLY”)
• Blockage of urinary tract by calculi (kidney stones)
Most common in wethers; intact males also susceptible
Caused by improper feeding (too much phosphorus, P)
• Symptoms
Restlessness, anxiety, off-feed
Abdominal pain, humped-up appearance
Straining, urine dribbling
Distended abdomen, edema
• Treatment
Depends upon location of obstruction
Ammonium chloride drench  surgery
Often not rewarding
• Prevention
Feed a properly balanced ration. Ca: P ratio of >2:1.
Adequate forage in diet
Adequate water intake
Addition of ammonium chloride to diet

26. COMMON NEUROLOGICAL PROBLEMS
Differential diagnoses: scrapie, rabies, meningeal worm, pregnancy toxemia, enterotoxemia
LISTERIOSIS (CIRCLING DISEASE)
POLIOENCEPHALOMALACIA (POLIO)
• Bacterial disease caused by
listeria monocytogenes (widespread)
Primary source is spoiled feed
and forage (especially silage).
• Disturbance in thiamine metabolism.
Commonly associated with high
concentrate diets (lower rumen pH), high
sulfur diets, amprolium (Corid), and
ingestion of thiaminase or thiamine
antogonists.
• Symptoms
Infection limited to one side of brain
One-sided appearance of paralysis
Disorientation, drooling, drooping ear
Lean against objects; walk in “circles”
Can also cause abortion (zoonotic).
• Treatment
Prompt and aggressive antibiotic therapy:
penicillin or tetracycline (Rx).
• Symptoms
Blindness, star gazing, head pressing
• Treatment
High doses of thiamine (Rx).
Complete recovery is possible if treatment
is initiated in early stages of disease.

27. INFECTIOUS KERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS - PINK EYE
• Infectious and contagious; tends to occur as an outbreak
in a flock or herd.
• Many causative organisms. Most common are Chlamydia
psittaci ovis and Mycoplasma conjunctivae.
• Symptoms
Discharge from eye, wet below eye
Aversion towards light
Red and irritated membranes
Cloudy or opaque membranes
• Treatment
Isolation in shady area
Antibiotic therapy: Terramycin® opthamalic, LA-200® (Rx),
penicillin (Rx), mastitis treatments (Rx).
• Prevention
Maintain a closed flock or herd.
Quarantine new animals or those returning from show.

28. SORE MOUTH (ORF)
• Most common skin problem in sheep/goats.
Caused by a virus in pox family.
Contagious to other animals and people (zoonotic)
• Symptoms
Lesions on mouth, nose, feet, limbs, udder, and genital areas.
Takes 1-4 weeks for disease to run its course.
• Treatment
Usually unrewarding
Treat secondary bacterial infections that may result.
• Prevention
Maintain a closed flock or herd.
Quarantine new animals and those returning from a show.
Once infected, vaccinate to control outbreaks.
Where gloves when vaccinating or handling infected animals.

29. LAST WEBINAR
THURSDAY, FEB 20
7 PM EST
TOPIC
DISEASE
MANAGEMENT