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Criminology Today
An Integrated Introduction
CHAPTER
Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e
Frank Schmalleger
Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Theories of Social
Process and Social
Development
8

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Frank Schmalleger
The Perspective of Social
Interaction
• Social process theories
 Depend on the process of interaction
between individuals and society
 Everyone has the potential to violate the
law.
 Criminality not an innate characteristic
• Learned through socialization
• Social development theories
 Integrated perspective

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Figure 8–1 Principles of Social Process and Social Development Theories
Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

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Types of Social Process
Approaches
• Social learning theory
• Social control theory
• Labeling theory
• Reintegrative shaming
• Dramaturgical perspective

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Differential Association
• Edwin Sutherland
• Crime is learned through a process of
differential association with others who
communicate criminal values and
advocate the commission of crimes.
• Suggests crime is not substantially
different from other forms of behavior

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Key Principles
1. Criminal behavior is learned.
2. Criminal behavior is learned in
interaction with others in a process of
communication.
3. The principle part of the learning of
criminal behavior occurs within
intimate personal groups.
continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
Key Principles
4. The learning includes techniques of
committing crimes and the specific
direction of motives, drives,
rationalizations, and attitudes.
5. The specific direction of motives and
drives is learned from definitions of
the legal codes as favorable or
unfavorable.

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Frank Schmalleger
Key Principles
6. A person becomes delinquent because
of an excess of definitions favorable to
law violation over those unfavorable to
law violation.
7. Differential associations may vary in
frequency, duration, priority, and
intensity.

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Frank Schmalleger
Key Principles
8. The process of learning criminal
behavior involves the same
mechanisms involved in other
learning.
9. While criminal behavior is an
expression of general needs and
values, it is not explained by those
needs and values.

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Differential
Association-Reinforcement Theory
• Robert Burgess and Ronald Akers
added reinforcement to differential
association theory.
• The same learning process produces
both conforming and deviant behavior
• Primary learning mechanisms
 Instrumental conditioning
 Imitation

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Differential
Association-Reinforcement Theory
• Akers' social structure–social learning
theory explains crime as a function of
learning within a social structure.
• Learning is the mediating process
through which the environment causes
crime.
• Location in the social structure is a
major determinant of how one is
socialized and what one will learn.

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Differential Identification Theory
• Daniel Glaser
• A person pursues criminal behavior to
the extent that he identifies with real or
imaginary persons from whose
perspective his criminal behavior seems
acceptable.
• Key is symbolic process of identification

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Social Control Theories
• Seek identifying factors that keep
people from committing crimes.
• Focus on the process through which
integration with positive institutions
and individuals develops.
• Ask why people obey rules instead of
breaking them.

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Containment Theory
• Walter Reckless
 Crime is the consequence of social
pressures to become involved in crime
and failure to resist such pressures.
• Compares crime to biological immune
response
 Sickness and crime result from failure of
internal and external control
mechanisms.

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Figure 8–2 A Diagrammatic Representation of Containment Theory

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Delinquency and Self-Esteem
• Howard Kaplan's self-derogation theory
of delinquency
• People who are ridiculed by their peers
suffer a loss of self-esteem, assess
themselves poorly, and abandon the
motivation to conform.
• Low self-esteem can foste delinquency,
which can in turn enhance self-esteem
for some delinquents.

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Social Bond Theory
• Travis Hirschi (1969)
• Through successful socialization, a
bond forms between individuals and the
social group.
• When the bond is weakened or broken,
deviance and crime may result.

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Components of the Social Bond
• Attachment
 A person's shared interests with others
• Commitment
 The amount of energy put into activities
• Involvement
 The amount of time spent in shared
activities
• Belief
 A shared value and moral system

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The General Theory of Crime
• Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990)
• Self-control
 Degree to which a person is vulnerable
to the temptations of the moment
 Acquired early in life
 Low self-control is the premier
individual-level cause of crime.
• Well-developed social bond will create
effective self-control mechanisms.

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• Per-Olof H. Wikström's situational
action theory (SAT)
 Individual's ability to exercise self-
control is outcome of the interaction
between personal traits and situation.
• No fundamental difference between
people who follow/break moral rules
and those who follow/break criminal
law.

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• Some researchers argue that the most
powerful predictors of crime are found
when people with low self-control
encounter criminal opportunities.
• Context of self-control an important
determining factor

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Control-Balance Theory
• Charles R. Tittle
• Control ratio
 The amount of control to which a person
is subject versus the amount of control
that person exerts over others
 Predicts the probability one will engage
in deviance and the specific form it will
take

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Figure 8–4 Control–Balance Theory

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Labeling Theory
• Tagging
 Process whereby an individual is
negatively defined by agencies of justice

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Labeling Theory
• After the tagging process is completed,
the offender has been defined as bad.
 Few legitimate opportunities available
 Can only associate with others similarly
defined
 Association leads to continued crime.

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Primary and Secondary Deviance
• Edwin M. Lemert
• Primary deviance
 Initial deviance undertaken to solve an
immediate problem or meet the
expectations of one's subcultural group
• Secondary deviance
 Deviant behavior that results from
official labeling and from association
with others who have been so labeled

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Labeling
• Society creates deviance and deviant
person by responding to circumscribed
behaviors.
• Deviance is not a quality of the act but
a consequence of the application by
others of rules and sanctions.
• Moral enterprise
 Efforts by an interest group to have its
sense of propriety embodied in law

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Contributions of Labeling Theory
• Deviance results from social processes
involving the imposition of definitions.
• Deviants are socially defined.
• The reaction of society is the major
element in determining the criminality
of the behavior and person.

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Contributions of Labeling Theory
• Negative self-images follow processing
by the formal mechanisms of criminal
justice rather than preceding
delinquency.
• Labeling by society and handling by the
justice system perpetuate crime rather
than reduce it.

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Figure 8–5 Becker’s Types of Delinquents

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Reintegrative Shaming
• John Braithwaite
 Emphasizes processes by which a
deviant is labeled and sanctioned but
then brought back into a community of
conformity
• Types of shaming
 Stigmatic shaming
 Reintegrative shaming

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Dramaturgical Perspective
• Erving Goffman (1959)
 Individuals play a variety of nearly
simultaneous social roles that are
sustained in interaction with others.
• Impression management
 The intentional enactment of practiced
behavior intended to convey to others
one's desirable personal characteristics
and social qualities

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Dramaturgical Perspective
• Discrediting information
 Information that is inconsistent with the
managed impressions being
communicated in a given situation.
• Total institution
 An institution from which individuals can
rarely come and go and in which
communal life is intense and
circumscribed

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Policy Implications of Social
Process Theories
• Emphasize crime prevention programs
that enhance self-control and build
prosocial bonds
• Programs based on social process
theories
 Juvenile Mentoring Program (JUMP)
 Preparing for the Drug Free Years
(PDFY)
 Montreal Preventive Treatment Program

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Critique of Social Process Theories
• Differential association theory
 Initial formulation is not applicable at
the individual level.
 The theory is untestable.
 It is not a sufficient explanation for
crime.
 It fails to account for the emergence of
criminal values.

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• Labeling theory
 It does not explain the origin of crime.
 Little empirical support for the concept
of secondary deviance
 Little empirical support for the claim
that system labeling is negative
 It has little to say about secret deviants.

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• Dramaturgical perspective
 Provides a set of linked concepts rather
than a theoretical frame
 Does not make suggestions for
institutional change
 Takes the theater analogy too far

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The Social Development
Perspective
• Focus on process of human
development in understanding
criminality
• Human development occurs on many
levels.
• Social development theories tend to be
integrated theories.

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Key Developmental Tasks
• Establishing identity
• Cultivating symbiotic relationships
• Defining physical attractiveness
• Investing in a value system
• Obtaining an education

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Key Developmental Tasks
• Separating from family and achieving
independence
• Obtaining/maintaining gainful
employment

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The Life-Course Perspective
• Criminal behavior tends to follow a
distinct pattern across the life cycle.
 Crime uncommon during childhood
 Begins in late adolescence, early
adulthood
 Diminishes/may disappear by age 30–
40

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Figure 8–7 Aspects of Criminal Careers

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The Life Course Perspective
• Emphasis on study of criminal careers
 Longitudinal sequence of crimes
committed by an individual offender
• Researchers interested in evaluating:
 Prevalence
 Frequency
 Onset

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• Also want to identify different
developmental pathways to
delinquency

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• Examine trajectories and transitions the
age-differentiated life span.
• Key dynamic concepts
 Activation
 Aggravation
 Desistance

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Laub and Sampson's Age-Graded
Theory
• Delinquency is more likely to occur
when bonds to society are
weak/broken.
• Social ties embedded in adult
transitions explain variations in crime
not accounted for by childhood
deviance

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Laub and Sampson's Age-Graded
Theory
• Turning points
 Crucial life experiences that can change
behavior
 Key turning points include employment
and marriage.
• Social capital
 The degree of positive relationships that
individuals build up over the course of
their lives

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Moffitt's Dual Taxonomic Theory
• Explains why most antisocial children
do not become adult criminals
• Life course persisters (LCP)
 Display constant patterns of
misbehavior throughout life
• Adolescence-limited offenders (AL)
 Led into offending by structural
disadvantages

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Moffitt's Dual Taxonomic Theory
• Adolescents more likely to engage in
prosocial behaviors, be members of
non-deviant peer groups if develop:
 Sense of industry and competency
 Feeling of connectedness
 Belief in ability to control their future
 Stable identity

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Farrington's Delinquent
Development Theory
• Persistence
 Continuity in crime
• Desistance
 The cessation of crime or the
termination of a period of involvement
in crime
 Unaided desistance occurs without
formal intervention.

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Development Theory
• Cambridge Study in Delinquent
Development
 More diversity in ages of desistance
than ages of onset
 Persistent offenders suffer from a
variety of risk factors for delinquency.
 Offending peaks at age 17–18, then
declines.
• By age 35, many subjects had
conforming lifestyles. continued on next slide

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Development Theory
• Loeber and LeBlanc's components of
desistance
 Deceleration
 Specialization
 Deescalation
 Reaching a ceiling
• Resilience
 Psychological ability to successfully cope
with severe stress and negative events

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Evolutionary Ecology
• Wolfgang's birth cohort study found a
small group of chronic juvenile
offenders accounted for a
disproportionately large share of all
juvenile arrests.
• Evolutionary ecology builds on social
ecology approach.
• Emphasizes developmental pathways
encountered early in life.

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Thornberry's Interactional Theory
• Integrates social control and social
learning elements
• Delinquency caused by combination of:
 Weakened bond to conventional society
 Environment in which delinquency can
be learned and rule-violating behavior
can be positively rewarded

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Thornberry's Interactional Theory
• Delinquency a process that unfolds over
the life course
• Childhood maltreatment may be an
important element of developmental
process leading to delinquency.
 Extent of maltreatment related to extent
of delinquent involvement later in life

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Developmental Pathways
• Manifestations of disruptive behaviors
are often age dependent.
• Program of Research on the Causes and
Correlates of Delinquency
 Longitudinal study focuses on improving
understanding of serious delinquency,
violence, and drug use.
 Examines how youths develop within
the context of family, school, peers, and
community continued on next slide

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Frank Schmalleger
Developmental Pathways
• Positive developmental pathways
fostered when adolescents are able to
develop:
 A sense of industry and competency
 A feeling of connectedness to
others/society
 A belief in their ability to control their
future
 A stable identity

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Frank Schmalleger
Figure 8–12 Three Pathways to Disruptive Behavior and Delinquency
Source: Barbara Tatem Kelley et al., Developmental Pathways in Boys’ Disruptive and Delinquent Behavior
(Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, December 1997).

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Frank Schmalleger
Pathways to Desistance
• Largest longitudinal study of serious
adolescent offending ever conducted
• Decrease in self-reported offending
over time
• Longer incarceration ineffective in
reducing recidivism
• Community-based supervision effective
• Substance-abuse treatment has
positive effect.

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Project on Human Development in
Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN)
• Longitudinal analysis of how
individuals, families, institutions, and
communities evolve together
• Traces how criminal behavior evolves
from birth to age 32
• Early results have led to targeted
interventions intended to lower rates of
offending.

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Policy Implications of Social
Development Theories
• OJJDP's Comprehensive Strategy
Program
 Framework for preventing delinquency,
early intervention, responding to
serious, violent, and chronic offending
• Targeted Outreach program
 Diverts at-risk juveniles into activities
intended to develop sense of belonging,
competence, usefulness, self-control

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Frank Schmalleger
Critique of Social Development
Theories
• Definitional issues and problems
• Difficulties in developing risk/needs
assessment devices and in using them
in both fundamental (pure) and applied
research

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